Charles IV, Czechia's Pater Patriae (Czech Republic, Germany)

Charles IV was born in 1316. In 1347 he became King of Bohemia and in 1349 he was crowned King of the Romans. In 1355 he became King of Italy and the first King of Bohemia to be crowned Holy Roman Emperor. When he was crowned as King of Burgundy in 1365 he became the personal ruler of all the kingdoms of the Holy Roman Empire. He died in 1378. In the Czech Republic he is still today considered as Pater Patriae.

Charles IV was a patron of arts and culture and Prague became his capital. There he established the New Town and commissioned famous buildings like the Charles Bridge or the Saint Vitus Cathedral. Also in Prague he founded in 1348 the first university of Central Europe, the Charles University. Due to this efforts Prague soon became the cultural and intellectual centre of Central Europe.

Karlštejn Castle was founded in 1348 by Charles IV and was used to house the Imperial Regalia, the Bohemian crown jewels, holy relics and other royal treasures.

In 1356 he promulgated the Golden Bull, which fixed important aspects of the constitutional structure of the Holy Roman Empire like the election of the king.

Henry the Lion, his cities and his tomb (Germany)

Henry the Lion was a member of the House of Welf born in 1129. In 1142 he became Duke of Saxony. In 1152 he had a big influence on the coronation of his cousin Frederick I Barbarossa as German King. For his part the thankful cousin helped Henry to become Duke of Bavaria in 1156. In the following years he established a king-like position in Northern Germany, which was viewed with mistrust by the other Saxon leaders. Henry also supported Frederick during his first Italian campaigns, but their relation worsened when Henry denied help in 1176. Frederick was defeated and Henry had to go to exile in England. Henry the Lion died in 1195.

Henry the Lion Fountain in Braunschweig

In the city of Braunschweig Henry the Lion built a centre of ducal representation. Important buildings of the period are the Brunswick Cathedral, the Dankwarderode Castle and the Brunswick Lion.

Also the city of Lübeck was supported by Henry the Lion. Actually there was a conflict with the city, but when it was destroyed by fire in 1158 Henry helped to rebuilt the city and fostered its overseas trade.

The Nazi Regime considered Henry the Lion as pioneer of the German eastward expansion and the Brunswick Cathedral became a destination of the völkisch pilgrimage. Henry's tomb was thus desecrated in 1935.

Frederick I Barbarossa (Germany)

Frederick I Barbarossa was born in 1122. His father was a member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, while is mother came from the House of Welf. He became Duke of Swabia in 1147, German King in 1152 and Holy Roman Emperor in 1155. His reign was influenced by his conflicts with the Lombard League and the Pope. Later he prepared the Third Crucade, but before he reached his destination, he drowned in the Saleph River in 1190.

Otto I the Great (Germany)

Otto I the Great was born in 912. After his father's death in 936 he became Duke of Saxony and German King and continued his father's work of unifying all German tribes into a single kingdom. His reign was marked by a expansion of the king's powers at the expense of the aristocracy and the Ottonian Renaissance of arts and architecture. In 955 he ended the Hungarian invasions of Western Europe, which earned him a reputation as a savior of Christendom. In 961 he conquered the Kingdom of Italy and in 962 he was crowned Holy Roman Emperor by Pope John XII. To resolve his conflict with the Byzantine Empire he married his son to the Byzantine princess in 972. He died in 973. 

In 968 he founded the Archbishopric of Magdeburg. The Cathedral of Magdeburg is today home to the grave of Otto I the Great.

Charlemagne and Widukind (Austria, Germany)

Charlemagne was born in 742. He became King of the Franks in 768 and lead the Frankish Kingdom to its biggest expansion. He operated as protector of the papacy, removed the Lombards from power in northern Italy and fought against the Muslims in Spain. His rule also spurred the Carolingian Renaissance. In 774 he became King of Italy. In 800 he was crowned by Pope Leo III the first Holy Roman Emperor since the fall of the Western Roman Empire. During his reign he united big parts of Western Europe and is today known as Pater Europae. Charlemagne died in 814.

Albrecht Dürer's Charlemagne from the collection of the
Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna

Around 796 Charlemagne started the construction of a chapel for his palace in Aachen. The church, which later became the Aachen Cathedral, is one of the most important Carlolingian monuments and was constantly enlarged over the centuries. In 814 Charlemagne was buried in the church and between 936 and 1531 thirty German Kings were coronated in the cathedral. In 1978 the Aachen Cathedral was one of the first twelve sites to be listed as World Heritage of the UNESCO.

In 772 Charlemagne started the first attempt to conquer Saxony. These Saxon Wars ended after 32 years and eighteen battles in 804, when the last rebellion of disaffected tribesmen was crushed. Afterwards Saxony was incorporated into the Frankish realm and the Saxons were forcible converted to Catholicism.

Widukind was a leader of the Saxons and Charlemagne's chief opponent during the Saxon Wars. In 785 he surrendered to Charlemagne and was baptised. Later many legends developed around Widukind's life.

Theodora I and Justinian I (Italy, Turkey)

Theodora I was born around 500. During her early years she worked as actress, but in 525 she married Justinian I and thus became empress of the Byzantine Empire in 527. Theodora proved herself a worthy and able leader, when she saved her husband's throne by convincing him to stay in Constantinople during the Nika riots. Later she participated in Justinian's legal and spiritual reforms and had a big influence on the increase of the rights of women. Theodora I died in 548. 

Justinian I was born around 482. He was adopted by his uncle Justin, a member of the imperial guard, who ensured the boy's education. Justin became Byzantine Emperor in 518 and Justinian his close confidant. When Justin died in 527, Justinian became emperor himself. He is considered to have been one of the most important emperors of the Late Antiquity, as his reign marked a blossoming of Byzantine culture and a reviving of the empire's greatness. But he is also said to have caused to beginning of the Middle Ages. He died in 565.

Justinian was also a prolific builder. For example the Hagia Sophia and the Basilica Cistern were built during his reign.

Emperor Justinian I reconquered many former territories of the Western Roman Empire including Italy, Dalmatia, Africa and southern Hispania.

During the Gothic War (535 - 554) the Byzantine Empire reconquered big parts of Italy from the Ostrogoths. Justinian's general Belisarius quickly conquered Sicily and Dalmatia. In 536 they captured Naples and Rome, in 537 Ariminum. In 540 the Ostrogothic capital Ravenna was captured. In 541 the new Ostrogothic King Totila started a try to restore the Gothic realm and was quite successful at the beginning, but was already killed during a new Byzantine campaign starting in 551. Also after this conquest the Byzantine Empire was not able to hold Italy for a long time. Three years after Justinian's death mainland Italy was conquered by the Lombards and no new attempts to reconquer it were made.

The Church of San Vitale in Ravenna was begun in 527 and was finished in 548, after the city was captured by the Byzantine Empire. It is one of the most important examples of early Christian Byzantine architecture in Europe and houses the largest and best preserved Byzantine mosaics outside of Istanbul. It is also the only major church from the period of the Emperor Justinian I to survive until today. As one of the Early Christian Monuments of Ravenna it is since 1996 on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The Art of Otto Dix (Germany)

Otto Dix was was a German painter and printmaker born in 1891. He was already exposed to art in his early life and entered the Academy of Applied Arts in 1910. 

When World War I began in 1914 Otto Dix enthusiastically volunteered for the German Army. He was assigned to a field artillery regiment and later fought on the Western Front, including the Battle of the Somme. His regiment was moved to the Eastern Front in November 1917 and to Flanders in February 1918, where he fought in the German Spring Offensive. He was discharged from service in December 1918 after he was wounded in the neck.

After the war he had to fight with a recurring nightmare and handled his sights in various paintings. One of his works about World War I is Der Krieg

He was one of the founders of the Dresden Secession group in 1919 and his works were shown during the German Expressionists exhibition in Darmstadt and the first Dada Fair in Berlin. He was known for his ruthless and harshly realistic depictions of the society during the Weimar Republic and became one of the most important artists of the New Objectivity, Neue Sachlichkeit. After the Nazis took over the power in Germany they regarded Dix as a degenerate artist and some of his paintings were burned as Entartete Kunst. He had to join the Reich Chamber of Fine Arts and was forced to paint only inoffensive landscapes, but occasionally he still painted allegorical paintings that criticized Nazi ideals. After World War II Dix gained recognition in East and West Germany. He died in 1969.

The History of Palermo and Sicily (Italy)

Palermo was founded in 8th century BCE by the Phoenicians. It was a part of Cathage until it was conquered by the Romans in 254 BCE. In 440 the city came under the control of Germanic tribes, before it was reconquered by the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire in the Gothic War in the 6th century. In 904 Sicily was captured by the Arabs and Palermo became the capital of the Emirate of Sicily. During the Christian Reconquest of the island the County of Sicily was founded, which became a kingdom under Norman rule in 1130. In 1194 the Kingdom of Sicily fell to the House of Hohenstaufen. In the following centuries the kingdom was ruled in personal unions with the Holy Roman Empire (1220–1250), the Crown of Aragon (1282–1516), the Kingdom of Spain (1516–1713), the Duchy of Savoy (1713–1720), the Habsburg Monarchy (1720–1735) and the Kingdom of Naples (1735–1816). In 1816 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies was founded with Palermo as its capital, but already in 1817 the capital was moved to Naples. In 1861 it was annexed by the Kingdom of Sardinia to form the Kingdom of Italy. 

The Palazzo dei Normanni is the oldest royal residence in Europe. It was the seat of the Kings of Sicily during the Norman domination. Later it was used as the main seat of power for the subsequent rulers of Sicily. In the 12th and 13th century it was the imperial seat of Frederick II and Conrad IV. Today it houses the Sicilian Regional Assembly. 

The Arab-Norman Palermo is since 2015 on the UNESCO World Heritge List.

The Cultural Life of Bayreuth (Germany)

The Margraviate of Brandenburg-Bayreuth was an immediate territory of the Holy Roman Empire, which was ruled by a Franconian branch of the Hohenzollern dynasty. Bayreuth became the residence of the Margrave in 1603 and in the 18th century Bayreuth had its heyday under the rule of Margrave Frederick and his wife Wilhelmine of Prussia. In 1791 the Margraviate was ceded to Prussia, who lost it again in 1807. Since 1810 is Bayreuth a part of Bavaria. 

Wilhelmine of Prussia was born in 1709. She was the oldest daughter of Frederick William I of Prussia and older sister of Frederick the Great. In 1731 she married Frederick, Margrave of Brandenburg-Bayreuth. She was a gifted composer and ordered the construction of various Baroque buildings in Bayreuth, which now shape the city's appearance. She died in 1758. 

The Eremitage is a historic park built between 1715 and 1722. Actually built by Margrave George William, his son Frederick gave the Eremitage to his wife Wilhelmine of Prussia after his father died. She ordered the construction of many additions.

One of the additions built at the behest of Wilhelmine is the Temple of the Sun. It was built between 1749 and 1753 and is crowned by a golden quadriga driven by the sun-god Apollo.

The Margravial Opera House in Bayreuth was built between 1745 and 1748 by Joseph Saint-Pierre in the Baroque style. The interior was designed by Giuseppe Galli Bibiena and his son Carlo. It is one of Europe's few surviving theatres of the period and is completely preserved in its original condition, except for the curtain which was taken by Napoleon's troops in 1812. The Margravial Opera House is since 2012 on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Bayreuth saw another heyday when the the Margraviate was long gone, as Richard Wagner chose the city to become the setting for his now World-famous theatre and music festival in the 1870s.

Richard Wagner (1813-1883) was one of the most famous German composers and made the opera into a Gesamtkunstwerk by writing text, music and stage directions. The first Bayreuth Festival was held in 1876. Since then it is held annually in the Bayreuth Festspielhaus, which was built between 1872 and 1875 just to house the festival. It was designed by Richard Wagner himself and was built with money from King Ludwig II of Bavaria.

A Centre of the Renaissance (Italy)

Urbino came under the rule of the House of Montefeltro in the early 13th century and under their rule in the Renaissance the city had its heyday, when it was a centre of attraction for famous artists from all over Italy, who created there an exceptional urban complex of remarkable homogeneity. In 1502 Cesare Borgia dispossessed the Duke of Urbino and in 1519 a new Duchy was established by the Dukes Della Rovere. In 1626 Pope Urban VIII incorporated the Duchy into the Papal States. 

Between 1444 and 1482 the city was ruled by Federico III da Montefeltro. He was the most famous member of the Montefeltro family, a skillful diplomat and an enthusiastic patron of art and literature. In 1454 he ordered the construction of the Palazzo Ducale, one of the most important Renaissance buildings in Italy.

The Historic Centre of Urbino is since 1998 on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Raphael was born in Urbino in 1483. He was a painter and architect of the High Renaissance and is said to be one of the period's Great Masters. He had an unusually large workshop and left a large body of work, although he already died at 37 in 1520. Many of his works are found in the Vatican Palace.

Some of his most famous paintings include the Madonna of the Meadow shown in Vienna, the Madonna of Foligno shown in the Vatican and the Sistine Madonna shown in Dresden.

Hoffmann von Fallersleben and the Song of Germany (Germany)

August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben was born in Fallersleben in 1798. He went to schools in Helmstedt and Braunschweig and later studied in Göttingen and Bonn. In 1823 he started to work at the university library of Breslau. He married in 1849 and in 1860 he became librarian in Corvey Castle near Höxter, where he also died in 1874. Today he is especially known for writing the text of the Song of Germany, although he wrote many other poems and also children's songs, which are very famous in Germany.

He wrote the Song of Germany in August 1841 during his stay on Heligoland. It uses a melody composed by Joseph Haydn and was played for the first time in Hamburg in October 1841. In 1922 it was declared national anthem of Germany, but because it was also used by the Nazis there was a discussion after World War II whether it is still suitable for the new democratic state. In 1952 the decision was made that the song remains the national anthem, but that only the third stanza is sung.

The History of Zanzibar (Tanzania)

The Zanzibar Archipelago is located in the Indian Ocean and consists of various islands including the largest islands Unguja and Pemba, which were inhabited since the Late Stone Age. 

In the 10th century the Persians established a base for traders on Unguja. In 1498 the Europeans visited the islands and already in 1504 they became a part of the Portuguese Empire. In 1698 Zanzibar fell under the control of the Sultanate of Oman. After struggles over the succession of Said bin Sultan, who moved Oman's capital from Muscat to Zanzibar, his son Majid bin Said became the first Sultan of Zanzibar in 1856. The sultans developed an economy of trade and cash crops in the Zanzibar Archipelago with a ruling Arab elite. Important goods were spices, ivory and slaves. In the following years the United Kingdom increased its influence on the islands and in 1890 the German Empire recognised the British protectorate over the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba in the Heligoland-Zanzibar Treaty. In 1963 the protectorate was abolished and Zanzibar became an independent state, but already in 1964 Zanzibar merged with mainland Tanganyika to form the United Republic of Tanzania. 

Today is Zanzibar a semi-autonomous part of Tanzania with Zanzibar City as its capital. The Stone Town of Zanzibar is since 2000 on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

Europe's Ideal Palace and its Copies (Austria, France, Germany, Russia, Sweden)

The Palace of Versailles is one of the largest palaces in Europe. Actually only a small hunting lodge, it was enlarged into a royal palace by the Sun King Louis XIV between 1661 and 1715. In 1682 Louis XIV moved his court from Paris to Versailles. The palace became the political and cultural centre of Franc, but also a symbol of the Absolute Monarchy and the abundant life of the monarch. In the course of the French Revolution Louis XVI and his family were forced to return to Paris in 1789. Since the 19th century it was used as museum and can be visited. After the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War Prussian King Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors on 18th January 1871 and after World War I the Treaty of Versailles was signed there in 1919.

Palace and Park of Versailles are since 1979 on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The Palace of Versailles provided Europe with a model of the ideal royal residence and so the architecture of the palace, the gardens and the life of Versailles were often copied in other countries. Famous examples include Schönbrunn Palace in Austria, Herrenchiemsee Palace in Bavaria, Ludwigslust Palace in Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Sanssouci Palace in Prussia, Peterhof Palace in Russia and Drottningholm Palace in Sweden.