The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Brunei, Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, Vietnam)

The time after World War II changed the political map of Southeast Asia permanently. Indonesia declared its independence from the Netherlands in 1945, which they accepted just in 1949 after the War of Indonesian Independence. The Philippines became independent from the USA in 1946. The Federation of Malaya became independent from the United Kingdom in 1957 and in 1963 Malaysia was founded when Sabah, Sarawak and Singapore were added to the Federation. Indonesia did not accepted its new neighbour and started the Konfrontasi and also the Philippines raised a claim to Sabah. Singapore was expelled from the Federation in 1965 due to ideological differences and became an independent state. But despite all these conflicts representatives of the four states and of Thailand came together in Bangkok in August 1967 and founded the Association of Southeast Asian Nations with the Bangkok Declaration. Its main aims were and still are economic growth, social progress, sociocultural evolution and the protection of regional stability, but it was also founded as reaction against the Vietnam War and the Communism. In 1984 Brunei joined the ASEAN barely a week after gaining independence from the United Kingdom. Myanmar and Laos joined in 1997. In the same year the ASEAN was also hit hard by the Asian financial crisis. Cambodia joined the community as last new member in 1999. In 2007 the ASEAN- Charter was signed, which turned the ASEAN into a legal entity and aimed to create a single free-trade area with the purpose of moving closer to an EU-style community. Today the ASEAN is an active global partner and works together with other parts of the World to promote World peace and stability.

To commemorate the 48th and 50th anniversary of the ASEAN its member states issued joint stamps in 2015 and 2017 (without Brunei). I have all stamps from 2015, but still miss some stamps from 2017. If anybody can help me to get the stamps from Cambodia, Myanmar or Laos please write it in the comments. 

Johann Joachim Winckelmann, from Stendal to Rome (Germany, Vatican)

Johann Joachim Winckelmann was born in Stendal on 9th December 1717 as son of a poor cobbler. Due to bursaries he was able to receive a good education. For a while he studied theology in Halle and medicine in Jena and worked as private tutor. At the same time he also pursued philologic, philosophic and historic studies. In 1748 he became a librarian at Count Heinrich von Bünau's famous library near Dresden. There he met Cardinal Alberico Archinto, who offered him an employment as librarian in Rome on condition that Winckelmann converts to the Catholicism. Also during that time King Augustus III of Poland became his patron. In 1754 he quitted his employment in von Bünau's library and moved to Dresden for a short time to learn how to draw. In 1755 he moved to Rome. Also in 1755 he published his famous Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture. During his time in Italy he visited many important ancient sites and art collections. He visited for example Florence, Neapel and Pompeii. In 1763 he became Commissario delle Antichità, the most important curator of monuments in the Papal States. Winckelmann's masterpiece The History of Art in Antiquity was published in 1764. In 1768 he wanted to visit his old friends in Germany, but had to terminate the journey before he reached his destination. On his way back to Rome he was killed in Trieste on 8th June 1768 by a robber. Johann Joachim Winckelmann is today considered to be the father of the modern archaeology and the discipline of art history and a pioneer of the Classicism in Germany.

Thanks to Winckelmann the Apollo Belvedere became one of the World's most celebrated art works when he championed it as the best example of the perfection of the Greek aesthetic ideal. It became one of the leading lights of Classicism and an icon of the Enlightenment.

In Stendal there are today a Winckelmann Statue and the only Winckelmann Museum in the World, which was opened in 1955.

Theodor Storm and Theodor Mommsen (Germany)

Theodor Storm and Theodor Mommsen were both born in the Duchy of Schleswig in 1817. After their first meeting in 1839 the two authors were connected by a life long friendship. 

Theodor Storm was born on 14th September in Husum. He published his first poems at the age of 15. In 1837 he started to study law at the University of Kiel. In Kiel he also met Theodor Mommsen and his brother Tycho. Together they published a collection of songs, myths and fairy tales. After his studies he moved back to Husum and opened a lawyer's office. There he also married and together with his wife he had seven children. Between 1848 and 1851 he took part in the First Schleswig War. He later lived in Potsdam (1853-1856) and Heiligenstadt (1856-1864). After the Second Schleswig War he moved back to Husum in 1864 and became bailiff. In 1880 he retired and moved to Hademarschen, where he wrote some novellas. Theodor Storm died on 4th July 1888. He is considered to have been one of the most important authors of the Literary Realism. His most famous works include the novella The Rider on the White Horse and the poem The Town.

Theodor Mommsen was born on 30th November in Garding. His father awakened his interest for ancient literature early. In 1838 he started to study law at the University of Kiel. Although he was actually a lawyer, he devoted himself to ancient history after his studies of Roman law. In 1844 he started a journey to France and Italy, where he planned a collection of Roman epigraphs. After his return to Germany he worked as teacher and later journalist, before he became extraordinary professor in Leipzig in 1848. Due to his participation in the May Uprising in Dresden in 1849, he was dismissed and became professor in Zurich in 1852 and in 1854 in Breslau. In 1858 he moved to Berlin and in 1861 he became professor at the Frederick William University, where he lectured until 1885. In Berlin he was also a member of the Reichstag. For his History of Rome he got the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1902. Theodor Mommsen died on 1st November 1903. He is considered to have been one of the most important historians of the 19th century.

Franz Joseph and Sisi (Austria, Hungary)

Franz Joseph was born on 18th August 1830. He was the nephew of the impotent heir apparent Ferdinand of Austria (Emperor since 1835) and the son of Archduke Franz Karl Joseph of Austria, who was considered to be to weak to rule. Thus his mother disciplined him as possible Emperor from the beginning. In 1848 Franz Joseph became the Emperor of Austria at the age of 18 after his uncle had abdicated in the course of the Revolutions in the Austrian Empire and his father had renounced. In 1854 he married Elisabeth "Sisi", the Duchess in Bavaria. His reign was coined by the increasing conflict with Russia on the Balkans, the approaching to the German Empire and the nationality conflict in his Empire. During his life he had to suffer many strokes of fate. His first child Sophie died in 1857, his brother Maximilian was executed in Mexico in 1867, his only son Rudolf committed suicide in 1889, Sisi was killed in 1898 and his nephew and the heir apparent Franz Ferdinand was assassinated in 1914 in Sarajevo. Although he did not want a war because of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, he wanted to demonstrate power against the Kingdom of Serbia and agreed to an ultimatum, which lead to World War I. After 68 years on the throne Franz Joseph I died on the 21st November 1916 in Schönbrunn Palace. The death of the Emperor, the defeats in the war and the nationality conflicts initiated the dissolution of the Habsburg Empire.

After the defeat in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 the Habsburg Empire was on the verge of collapse and to save the Empire Franz Joseph I was forced to come to a compromise with the Hungarians. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867 partially re-established the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary and created the dual monarchy of the Austro-Hungarian Empire as a real union between the Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Hungary. The Austrian and Hungarian regions were governed by separate parliaments and prime ministers, but the unity was maintained by the rule of a single head of state, reigning as both Emperor of Austria and King of Hungary. The resulting system was maintained until the dissolution of the dual monarchy after World War I.

Duchess Elisabeth "Sisi" in Bavaria was born in 1837 and had a happy childhood. In 1853 she travelled with her mother and sister to Bad Ischl to meet Franz Joseph. Franz Joseph's mother planned the marriage of her son with one of the duchesses and surprisingly Franz Joseph chose Elisabeth. In 1854 they married and together they had four children. The youngest daughter, Marie Valerie, was her favourite. Elisabeth never liked the court life and from 1860 onwards she was often on journeys far away from Vienna. To mitigate the loneliness of the Emperor Elisabeth arranged the acquaintance of her husband with the actress Katharina Schratt. Elisabeth and Franz Joseph were lifelong friendly connected and often exhanged letters. One of the few political activities of Elisabeth was the mediation of the Austro-Hungarian Compromise. In 1867 she became Queen of Hungary. On a journey to Geneva in 1898 Elisabeth was stabbed by the Italian anarchist Luigi Lucheni.

The Kaiserville in Bad Ischl was bought in 1853 by Franz Joseph's mother as wedding gift for the couple. In the following years it was renovated in the Neoclassicist style and became the summer residence of the Emperor. Nearly every year he celebrated his birthday in Bad Ischl. In 1914 Franz Joseph signed the declaration of war against Serbia in the Kaiservilla.

Gödöllő Palace was built from 1735 onwards by Antal Grassalkovich I in the Baroque style. In 1866 Empress Elisabeth of Austria visited the palace for the first time, when it was used as sickbay for the wounded of the Austro-Prussian War, and breathed a wish to obtain it, which was declined by her husband. After the Austro-Hungarian Compromise the Hungarian State bought the palace and gave it as coronation gift to Franz Joseph and Elisabeth. In the following time it was restored and rebuilt. The palace became a favourite residence of Elisabeth and she spent around 2000 days there. After Elisabeth's death it was rarely used and started to decay, until it was once again restored from 1996 onwards. Today it houses a museum and is a popular tourist destination.

500 Years Reformation (Brazil, Germany, Vatican)

5. Papa non vult nec potest ullas penas remittere preter eas, quas arbitrio vel suo vel canonum imposuit. - Der Papst will und kann keine Strafen erlassen, außer solchen, die er auf Grund seiner eigenen Entscheidung oder der der kirchlichen Satzungen auferlegt hat. - The pope neither desires nor is able to remit any penalties except those imposed by his own authority or that of the canons.

10. Indocte et male faciunt sacerdotes ii, qui morituris penitentias canonicias in purgatorium reservant. - Unwissend und schlecht handeln diejenigen Priester, die den Sterbenden kirchliche Bußen für das Fegefeuer aufsparen. - Those priests act ignorantly and wickedly who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penalties for purgatory.

21. Errant itaque indulgentiarum predicatres ii, qui dicunt per pape indulgentias hominem ab omni pena solvi et salvari. - Deshalb irren jene Ablaßprediger, die sagen, daß durch die Ablässe des Papstes der Mensch von jeder Strafe frei und los werde. - Thus those indulgence preachers are in error who say that a man is absolved from every penalty and saved by papal indulgences.

36. Quilibet christianus vere compunctus habet remissionem plenariam a pena et culpa etiam sine literis veniarum sibi debitam. - Jeder Christ, der wirklich bereut, hat Anspruch auf völligen Erlaß von Strafe und Schuld, auch ohne Ablaßbrief. - Any truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without indulgence letters.

41. Caute sunt venie apostolice predicande, ne polulus false intelligat eas preferri ceteris bonis operibus charitatis. - Nur mit Vorsicht darf der apostolische Ablaß gepredigt werden, damit das Volk nicht fälschlicherweise meint, er sei anderen guten Werken der Liebe vorzuziehen. - Papal indulgences must be preached with caution, lest people erroneously think that they are preferable to other good works of love.

62. Verus thesaurus ecclesie est sacrosanctum euangelium glorie et gratie dei.- Der wahre Schatz der Kirche ist das allerheiligste Evangelium von der Herrlichkeit und Gnade Gottes. - The true treasure of the church is the most holy gospel of the glory and grace of God.

These are just six of Martin Luther's Ninety-Five Theses, that he posted at the doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on 31st October 1517. But has he really posted his theses at the doors of the Castle Church? Today historians are not sure if he really posted them, but it is sure that Martin Luther sent his Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum to Albert of Brandenburg, the Archbishop of Mainz and Magdeburg, to start a academic disputation about the sale of indulgences. After the Archbishop did not answered the letter, Luther gave the theses to some friends, who published them unknown to Luther and thus started a public disputation in the whole Empire. No matter if Martin Luther posted them at the doors of the Castle Church or just sent them to Albert of Brandenburg, the "Thesenanschlag" became a foundation myth of the Reformation. During the jubilee year 2017 everybody is talking about this important event in World's History and the whole year is filled with special events and celebrations in Germany and Europe. 

Theses Doors in Wittenberg

One of the biggest events for the jubilee was the German Evangelical Church Assembly. It was held in Berlin and Wittenberg between the 24th and 28th May and was attended by over 100000 visitors including Barack Obama. The assembly was accompanied by concerts, open forums and services. Simultaneously there were "Church Assemblies on the Way" in Dessau-Roßlau, Eisleben, Erfurt, Halle, Jena, Leipzig, Magdeburg and Weimar.

For the jubilee a group of Postcrossers organised a series of Meet-ups at important places in Martin Luther's life. The Meet-ups were or will be held in Eisleben (18th February), Erfurt (15th July), Wittenberg (14th October) and Eisenach (2nd December).

To commemorate 500 years Reformation in 2017 Brazil and Germany issued a joint stamp showing Martin Luther. Other special stamps were issued in Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Estonia, the Faroe Islands, Hungary, Iceland, Italy, Kosovo, Latvia, Lithuania, Namibia, Papua New Guinea, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia and the Vatican. Some of these I have in my collection, some others I am still missing. You can see my complete collection here.

Brazil and Germany (issued 13-04-2017)

Vatican (issued 23-11-2017)

On 31st October there were also many special postmarks available in Germany including a set of postmarks showing all the Luther Memorials on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The Lutheran Reformation (Germany)

The early 16th century was a time of change in Europa. The Discovery of America in 1492 brought much precious metal to Europa, which decreased the monetary value and increased the prices for nourishment. The Humanists started to deal with the Antiquity and sought to create a citizenry, which is able to speak and write with eloquence and clarity and which is capable of engaging in the civic life of their communities. Also many people lost their faith in the church, as the buying of church offices and roles (simony) was widespread at the time. And with the introduction of mechanical movable type printing in Europe everyone was able to spread his or her criticism much more easily. All this added up at the beginning of the Reformation, but the straw that broke the camel's back was a quite local one: Albert of Brandenburg and Johann Tetzel.

Albert of Brandenburg was born in 1490. He was the younger son of Elector John Cicero of Brandenburg. As his older brother became the next Elector of Brandenburg after their father's death in 1499, Albert entered the ecclesiastical profession. In 1513 he became Archbishop of Magdeburg and administrator of the Diocese of Halberstadt. In 1514 he planned to become also Archbishop-Elector of Mainz, but as this accumulation of offices was against the Codex Iuris Canonici, he had to obtain a special authorisation from the Pope, for which he had to loan money from Jakob Fugger. To repay his loan he had once again obtained a permission from the Pope, this time to conduct the sale of indulgences in his diocese to obtain funds. Indulgences are, according to the Roman Catholic Church, a way to reduce the amount of punishment one has to undergo for sins. The Pope agreed as long as half of the collection was forwarded to the Papacy, who wanted the money for the construction of the Saint Peter's Basilica. Entrusted with the collection of the indulgences was Johann Tetzel.

Johann Tetzel was born around 1460 in Pirna. He studied theology and philosophy at the University of Leipzig and became a Dominican friar and preacher in 1489. In January 1517 he was made Grand Commissioner of Indulgences for Archbishop Albrecht von Brandenburg in the dioceses of Magdeburg and Halberstadt. Also in 1517 he moved to Jüterbog, an exclave of the Archbishopric of Magdeburg, which then became a centre of the sale of indulgences and an attracting point for many people from the Electorate of Saxony, as the sale was prohibited there. As the reasons for the sale of indulgences were known to the public, some people started to criticise the sale. One of them was Martin Luther. Tetzel had later fallen into disrepute and died in Leipzig in 1519. 

As response to the sale of indulgences Martin Luther wrote his famous Ninety-five Theses. Here you can see six of them.

5. Papa non vult nec potest ullas penas remittere preter eas, quas arbitrio vel suo vel canonum imposuit. - Der Papst will und kann keine Strafen erlassen, außer solchen, die er auf Grund seiner eigenen Entscheidung oder der der kirchlichen Satzungen auferlegt hat. - The pope neither desires nor is able to remit any penalties except those imposed by his own authority or that of the canons.
10. Indocte et male faciunt sacerdotes ii, qui morituris penitentias canonicias in purgatorium reservant. - Unwissend und schlecht handeln diejenigen Priester, die den Sterbenden kirchliche Bußen für das Fegefeuer aufsparen. - Those priests act ignorantly and wickedly who, in the case of the dying, reserve canonical penalties for purgatory.
21. Errant itaque indulgentiarum predicatres ii, qui dicunt per pape indulgentias hominem ab omni pena solvi et salvari. - Deshalb irren jene Ablaßprediger, die sagen, daß durch die Ablässe des Papstes der Mensch von jeder Strafe frei und los werde. - Thus those indulgence preachers are in error who say that a man is absolved from every penalty and saved by papal indulgences.
36. Quilibet christianus vere compunctus habet remissionem plenariam a pena et culpa etiam sine literis veniarum sibi debitam. - Jeder Christ, der wirklich bereut, hat Anspruch auf völligen Erlaß von Strafe und Schuld, auch ohne Ablaßbrief. - Any truly repentant Christian has a right to full remission of penalty and guilt, even without indulgenceletters.
41. Caute sunt venie apostolice predicande, ne polulus false intelligat eas preferri ceteris bonis operibus charitatis. - Nur mit Vorsicht darf der apostolische Ablaß gepredigt werden, damit das Volk nicht fälschlicherweise meint, er sei anderen guten Werken der Liebe vorzuziehen. - Papal indulgences must be preached with caution, lest people erroneously think that they are preferable to other good works of love.
62. Verus thesaurus ecclesie est sacrosanctum euangelium glorie et gratie dei. - Der wahre Schatz der Kirche ist das allerheiligste Evangelium von der Herrlichkeit und Gnade Gottes. - The true treasure of the church is the most holy gospel of the glory and grace of God.

According to the legend he posted his theses at the doors of the Castle Church in Wittenberg on the 31st October 1517. Although historians are today not sure if he really posted them, Martin Luther for sure sent his Disputatio pro declaratione virtutis indulgentiarum to Albert of Brandenburg with aim to start a academic disputation about the sale of indulgences. It is also known for sure that after the Archbishop did not answered the letter, Luther gave the theses to some friends, who published them unknown to Luther and thus started a public disputation in the whole Empire. No matter if Martin Luther posted them at the doors of the Castle Church or just sent them to Albert of Brandenburg, the "Thesenanschlag" became a foundation myth of the Reformation. On the other side, although he did not answered, Albrecht von Brandenburg had read Luther's letter, but instead of accepting the criticism, he started an ecclesiastical trial against Luther and sent the issue to Rome.

After the Ninety-five Theses were publicised, Martin Luther's life would never be the same again. The monk and professor was then talked of by everyone. During the Heidelberg Disputation, that was held on 25th April 1518, he was able to articulate his views and to defend his theses for the first time. Among the listeners were Johannes Brenz, Martin Bucer and Philip Melanchthon, who later became important supporters of Luther.

In June 1518 Luther was summoned to Rome, as he was accused of heresy, but with the help of Elector Frederick the Wise he was able to move the trial from Rome to Augsburg. During the Diet of Augsburg (12th to 14th October 1518) Luther was interrogated by Cardinal Thomas Cajetan. Luther refused to revoke his theses if there would not be an evidence for their falseness in the Bible. Cajetan rated this as heresy and to escape the threatening arrest Luther fled from Augsburg.

In the meantime Johann Eck prepared theses for a debate with Andreas Karlstadt and Philip Melanchthon, friends and supporters of Luther. The theses were clearly against Luther and so Luther decided to join the Leipzig Debate himself in July 1519. Eck's debating skills led Luther to declare that the Pope does not have power, as he is not mentioned in the Bible, and that also Councils can be wrong (meant was the one in Constance).

In 1520 Martin Luther published his important works To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church and On the Freedom of a Christian. These works can be summarised by the four "soli": sola gratia (only the grace of God), sola fide (only the faith), sola scriptura (only the Bible), solus Christus (only Jesus the Christ).

The Leipzig Debate led Pope Leo X to censor Luther and threaten him with excommunication from the Catholic Church in June 1520 with the papal bull Exsurge Domine, which banned Luther's views from being preached or written. As Luther burned this papal bull on 10th December 1520, Pope Leo X issued the bull Decet Romanum Pontificem on 3rd January 1521, which excommunicated Martin Luther.

Owing to Frederick the Wise Martin Luther was allowed to articulate and defend his views once again during the Diet of Worms on 17th April 1521, where he was interrogated and requested to revoke his theses. He refused and answered with his famous, but undocumented, sentence: "Here I stand, I can do no other, God help me. Amen." The Edict of Worms declared Luther to be an obstinate heretic and banned the reading or possession of his writings. Luther was declared an outlaw, but Emperor Charles V still kept the promise of safe-conduct which he had given Frederick the Wise. On his way home Martin Luther was "abducted" by Frederick's soldiers on 4th May 1521 and was brought to the safe Wartburg Castle.

At Wartburg Castle Martin Luther lived as Junker Jörg and translated the New Testament into German in only eleven weeks. It was the first German bible translation that was understandable for the most people and had a large impact on the German language. Due to riots and the radicalisation of the Reformation under Karlstadt, Martin Luther returned to Wittenberg on 1st March 1522. After just one week quiet set in again.

Sparked by social hardship and grievances in the ruling classes and inspired by the Reformation and especially Martin Luther's On the Freedom of a Christian, the German peasants started to revolt against their landlords in 1524. Despite the strong reference to the Reformation, Luther, Melanchthon and other reformers condemned the behaviour of the peasants and supported the ruling princes. A reformer who supported the peasants was Thomas Müntzer. At the beginning Müntzer was a dedicated supporter and admirer of Martin Luther, but compared to Luther Müntzer was more radical and the German Peasants' War resulted in a final dissociation of the two. As part of the war the peasants assembled in "Bauernhaufen" in many parts of the German Empire and started the fight. In March 1525 the Twelve Articles were worked out by the peasants in Memmingen. They included the peasants' demands and are considered to be the first draft of human rights and civil liberties in Europe. As the peasants were poorly armed, the princes did not have big problems in defeating them and the Twelve Articles were not accepted. The Battle of Frankenhausen, fought in Thuringia on 15 May 1525, was the largest and final battle of the German Peasants' War. Thomas Müntzer was arrested after the battle and later executed. Until September 1525 the fighting ended. Up to 100000 peasants lost their lives and none of their goals was achieved.

The German Peasants' War was of great importance to the conception
of history in East Germany describing it as the greatest
revolutionary attempt in the German history.

A view of Memmingen

The next important event of the Lutheran Reformation was the Diet of Speyer in 1526. Archduke Ferdinand I of Austria, who presided the diet instead of his brother Emperor Charles V, wanted to postpone any final decisions on religion until the meeting of a general council and planned a concentration on the threatening invasion of the Turks. The princes, however, managed to negotiate some very different conclusions to the diet. The diet's ambiguous edict resulted in a temporary suspension of the Edict of Worms and aided the expansion of Protestantism. After the diet separate state churches in the Protestant states of the Holy Roman Empire were established.

Another diet was held in Speyer in 1529. Ferdinand I, who once again presided the diet, condemned the way many princes had interpreted the edict issued in 1526 and restored the Edict of Worms. The Lutheran members of the Diet, six princes and representatives of 14 Imperial Free Cities, entered a protest and refused any military support against the Turks. Their action created the term Protestantism.

Charles V had then called on the Princes and Free Territories in Germany to explain their religious convictions in an attempt to restore the religious and political unity in the Holy Roman Empire and rally support against the Turkish invasion. The protestants subsequently presented the Confessio Augustana to the Emperor at the Diet of Augsburg on 25 June 1530. The Emperor clearly rejected the statements of the Confessio Augustana and answered with the Confutatio Augustana written by Johann Eck. As a consequence he confirmed the Edict of Worms. The Confessio Augustana, written by Philipp Melanchthon, is today the primary confession of faith of the Lutheran Church and one of the most important documents of the Lutheran Reformation. As Luther was still under the Imperial Ban, he had to stay at the Veste Coburg and was not able to take part in presentation of the Confessio Augustana.

After Charles V rejected the Confessio Augustana, there were discussions among the Protestant Princes and Imperial Cities of the Holy Roman Empire if they should form an alliance against the Emperor. On 22nd December 1530 Elector Johann of Saxony invited representatives of the Protestant territories to Schmalkalden and on 27th February 1531 they founded the Schmalkaldic League, a defensive military alliance with the obligation of support in the case of a Catholic attack. The founding members included Saxony, Hesse, Brunswick-Lüneburg, Strasbourg and Ulm. In the following time more cities and territories joined the league and it became an important factor of power. At the beginning Charles V was not able to take action against the alliance, as he needed the support of all Princes in the war against the Turks, but in the early 1540s differences between the members of the Schmalkaldic League became more difficult to settle and it was effectively petrified.

Before the Schmalkaldic League got its big appearance, two other events in 1534 and 1545 attracted the attention of the contemporaries: the Anabaptists' Rebellion in Münster and the Council of Trent.

From the beginning of the Reformation there have been conflicts between Catholics and Protestants in Münster. Starting in 1531 the guilds of the craftsmen began to support Münster's evangelical movement under Bernd Rothmann and formed a committee which had big influence on the politics of the city. As the city had not joined the Confessio Augustana in 1530, it was isolated from the other Protestant cities and states, but due to the weakness of the territorial lord (the Prince-Bishop of Münster) the movement was able to thrive. Soon after Rothmann joined the Anabaptism and became more radical. The new Prince-Bishop, Franz von Waldeck, sanctioned the city, but the conflict escalated and had to be mediated by Philip of Hesse. In the following time Münster became a centre for emigrating Protestants and Anabaptists from the Netherlands. In January 1534 the young Anabaptist John of Leiden moved to Münster and at that time also the Credobaptism began. But as Credobaptism was against the imperial law, Franz von Waldeck had another chance to take action against Münster. In February 1534 Jan Matthys, a charismatic Anabaptist leader, reached Münster and radically started to convert the political structures of Münster as his New Jerusalem. Matthys expected the apocalypse and the appearance of Jesus Christ in Münster at Easter 1534. At the time Franz von Waldeck also started his siege of the city. As Jesus Christ did not appeared, Matthys went outside of Münster's walls, where he was killed. John of Leiden became the new even more radical leader of the rebellion. He introduced the Polygyny and executed many death sentences. Due to the siege and the radicalisation the support for the rebellion in the population decreased. Meanwhile Franz von Waldeck's siege was supported by other princes, both Catholics and Protestants. On 24th June 1535 Münster was finally captured and the rebellion ended with a bloodbath. 

John of Leiden and two other leaders of the rebellion were imprisoned. In 1536 their corpses were exhibited in cages at the Saint Lambert's Church in Münster, after they had been tortured and executed in front of it. The iron cages can be still seen today.

Prinzipalmarkt and Saint Lambert's Church in Münster

Emergency Money issued in Münster after World War I
showing John of Leiden

The Council of Trent was held between 1545 and 1563. It marks the beginning of the Counter-Reformation and led to various reforms such as the foundation of seminaries for the proper training of priests and the foundation of new spiritual movements, but its main aims were the repression of the Protestantism and the Recatholisation of Protestant territories. The Counter-Reformation was one of the factors that later would lead to the Thirty Years' War.

On 10th July 1546, after Charles V had assured himself the neutrality of the other European powers and the support of the Pope, the Schmalkaldic War began. At the beginning the war was fought in Southern Germany, but it was later shifted to Central Germany. After the capture of Elector John Frederick I of Saxony and Philip of Hesse and the victory of Charles V in the Battle of Mühlberg on 24th April 1547, the Schmalkaldic War was over and the Schmalkaldic League was dissolved. In May 1548 Charles V ordered the Augsburg Interim, which forced Protestants to readopt traditional Catholic beliefs and practices, but also allowed some Protestant practices like the right to marry for clergyman.

This is not a postcard, but a picture from the Internet.

Both Catholics and Protestants were unsatisfied with the Interim. In January 1552 Maurice of Saxony, one of Charles V's most important supporters in the Schmalkaldic War, formed an alliance with other Princes and the French King and forced Charles V to retreat to Austria. In August 1552 Charles V guaranteed Lutheran religious freedoms in the Peace of Passau and cancelled the Augsburg Interim. The Peace of Passau effectively surrendered Charles V's lifelong quest for European religious unity. The religious freedoms were assured with the Peace of Augsburg on 25th September 1555. It officially ended the religious struggle between the Catholics and Lutherans and made the legal division of Christendom permanent within the Holy Roman Empire, allowing rulers to choose either Lutheranism or Roman Catholicism as the official confession of their state (Cuius regio, eius religio). After the Peace of Augsburg followed one of the longest periods of peace in the history of the Holy Roman Empire.