The Hanseatic League - Narratives and Local Perspectives

When I started this blog in July 2015, the second post I wrote was about the Hanseatic League. Since then however I had plans to rewrite or expand this post and although there were two interested Hanseatic jubilees in the last two years, 800 years Rostock in 2018 and 350 years last Hanseatic Day in 2019, it took me until this year's jubilee (see below) to do so. But first let's take a look at what I wrote nearly five years ago:

"The Hanseatic League existed between the 12th and the 17th century. First it was only a union of merchants, but since the 14th century it was organised by the cities itself. Since then also Hanseatic Days were held frequently. The Hanseatic League was not only an important factor in the development of the Northern European economy but also of its politics and culture. At its climax nearly 200 coastal and inland cities joined the league. In the 15th century the demise of the Hanseatic League began with the strengthening of the local sovereigns, the shift of trade route and the new competitors developing due to the discovery of America. In 1669 only the nine cities Braunschweig, Bremen, Cologne, Gdansk, Hamburg, Hildesheim, Lübeck, Osnabrück and Rostock came together for the last Hanseatic Day."

Although some things might me improved here, I actually still like what I wrote back then and do not intend to change anything, but instead I want now to focus a bit on historic narratives about the Hanseatic League and some perspectives from different cities. 

In Germany the Hanseatic League is usually rated as a positive aspect of history, but during the last 150 the reason for this has changed. From the 19th century up until the Nazis the Hanseatic League was regarded as a German entity or even precursor of the national state maintaining a powerful position in Northern Europa, which was for example added by fleet glory during the rule of Emperor William II or as carrier of the expansion of the German lebensraum in the East by the Nazis. After World War II that changed. In East Germany for example the Hanseatic League was now an example for the influence of the masses on the history, although even East German historians denied this view. In Scandinavia the view of the Hanseatic League was more negative, as it was regarded as an exploiter of the local people. This negativity however faded away and gave rise to a new narrative, which was also shared with West Germany. As such the Hanseatic League was now viewed as a precursor of a unified Europa. This change of view is nicely documented by a German-Swedish joint issue back in 2006 celebrating the 650th anniversary of the Hanseatic League of Cities and also German Chancellor Angela Merkel followed this narrative during a speech in 2015, during which she highlighted its role as "first big successful trade network in Europa" ("der erste große erfolgreiche Wirtschaftsverbund Europas"), long lifespan, transnational thinking and joint interests and also draws a continuity to the European Union and the central thought of strength through unity. As I actually like this narrative, I do not want to discuss it too much, but just two other thoughts show that this view is as fragile as any other. At first it has to be said, that there might be Hanseatic cities in Estonia, Iceland, Poland and so on, but they were only part of the Hanseatic League, because German merchants lived there, which makes them not really transnational. Also I want to quote one of my docents who once said in a seminary about the history of the Baltic states in the Middle Ages that the Hanseatic League was a "semi-criminal forwarding cartel bullying out other competitors." All of these narratives for sure have their true core and although it is not ideal I think everyone knows that in the end the loudest narrative will be prevalent.

So, if it is not easy to really examine what the Hanseatic League was in history as a whole it should be easier to take a look in its role in the history of its constitutent parts, the cities, right? This however brings up an interesting problem: There is no complete list of Hanseatic Cities and it probably never existed. Some cities were part of the league for centuries, while others were just short time members. For some the membership was an important part of the local identity and economic importance, while others had many different pillars. And also the membership in the Hanseatic League of New Time, founded in Zwolle in 1980, is not a good indicator, as it includes on request all cities that were once part of the original league. In theory this however means that some Hanseatic cities which never made a request are not part of it, while other cities which were short time members are now full members of the new league. Without claim to completeness below you can find nine cities and groups of cities which I chose to examine different aspects of Hanseatic history and identity.

The first four cities are Bergen in Norway, Bruges in Belgium, London in the United Kingdom and Veliky Novgorod in Russia. None of these cities was ever an actual Hanseatic city, but they played an important part in the Hanseatic history, as the were home to the major foreign trading posts of the league, the Kontore. Of these Kontore not much survived until today, as most of them were closed at some point in history and were later demolished. Only the Kontor in Bergen, known as Bryggen, survived and as a "reminder of the town's importance as part of the Hanseatic League's trading empire" it is even on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The next city is Visby on the Swedish island of Gotland. Visby or actually Gotland as a whole was an important early step in the formation of the Hanseatic League, as this was one of the earliest stages and centres for the trade in the Baltic Sea. In the early days in the second half of the 13th century Visby was also on a good way to become the leader of the nascent league, but was neutralised by the later Queen. Just like the Bryggen also Visby is on the UNESCO World Heritage List. It is there described as "the best-preserved fortified commercial city in northern Europe" and the "main centre of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic from the 12th to the 14th century."

Stralsund and Wismar in the German State of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern are usually presented as a pair, as as such they are together on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Both were major trading centres of the Hanseatic League and also share the common fate of later becoming part of Sweden. As the UNESCO highlights, they also "contributed to the development of the characteristic building types and techniques of Brick Gothic in the Baltic region." After having visited Stralsund myself last year plus making a short stop in Wismar, I can say that the Brick Gothic architecture there is truely amazing. Highlights are the Town Hall of Stralsund and Stralsund's Saint Mary's Church, which was once even the tallest building in the World. Check out this post on my other blog to see the cards I bought during this trip including many cards of Brick Gothic buildings. Stralsund is also inseparably linked to the Treaty of Stralsund, which was signed on this day 650 years ago in 1370 and which marked the peak of power of the Hanseatic League. This treaty ended the war between the Hanseatic League and the Kingdom of Denmark and assured the league of free trade in the entire Baltic Sea resulting in a monopoly on Baltic fish trade. Also now the league had a right to veto against Danish throne candidates. Unfortunately there was not (yet?) any philatelic commemoration of this jubilee. No stamp, prepaid cover or card and not even a special postmark were available. Only the magazin "Postfrisch" of the Deutsche Post published an article about the treaty in its most recent issue called "Triumph der Kaufleute" (Triumph of the Merchants). The article begins with the question, "who thought that merchants might defeat a kingdom?" and ends with a statement on its historic importance, which however was not much mentioned in contemporary sources of the 14th century.

Tallinn, Estonia's capital, is yet another Hanseatic-themed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Also Tallinn is described by the UNESCO as a major centre of the Hanseatic League, whose "wealth is demonstrated by the opulence of the public buildings (the churches in particular) and the domestic architecture of the merchants' houses." In fact it was one of the centres for the Hanseatic trade with Russia. An interesting building in Tallinn is the Great Guild Hall, which got the European Heritage Label in 2013. The Panel Report says that the "Great Guild's history of interactions with the Hanseatic League reveals the intriguing story of European 'integration' in medieval times."

I am still looking for a card of the Great Guild Hall. If you can help me please comment below.

Latvia's capital Riga was also one of the key centres of the Hanseatic League in Eastern Europa and just like Tallinn it is also on the UNESCO World Heritage List, important for the inscription was however not only the Hanseatic past but also the fine collection of art nouveau buildings. Generally the UNESCO describes Riga as "living illustration of European history." The Three Brothers, characteristic dwelling houses found in Hanseatic towns in the Baltic Region, also got the European Heritage Label in 2019. The restoration in the 1950s is described in the Panel Report as "instrumental in building resistance to the destruction of Latvian culture during the Soviet occupation, and for sustaining the link with Europe and the value of freedom during this period." Riga's Hanseatic past is thus described as its link with Europa. In 2007 Latvia and Germany celebrated their common Hanseatic past with a joint issue about Riga, Stralsund and Wismar. The House of the Blackheads is depicted for Riga on these stamps. The ones for Stralsund and Wismar you can see above.

I am still looking for a card of the Three Brothers. If you can help me please comment below.

Another former Hanseatic city, which would like to be included on the UNESCO World Heritage List, is Gdansk in Poland. To reach this goal "Gdansk - Town of Memory and Freedom" is currently inscribed to the UNESCO World Heritage List. While the application also includes Hanseatic memory next to the Westerplatte and sites of the Solidarity Movement, the text on the website mentions the Hanseatic League itself only shortly. Although the Hanseatic identity is still expressed today, it seems to have been even stronger one hundred years ago. Back then during the Interwar Period Gdansk as Free City of Danzig was a semi-autonomous city-state separated from Germany and put into a binding customs union with Poland. To commemorate the proclamation of the state (15th November 1920) a series of stamps was issued on 31st January 1921, which showed the famous Hanseatic Kogge (wrongly depicted with three masts) and thus activated the city's Hanseatic past and with that back then also its German identity.

Unfortunately I do not own this stamp.
The image is from the Colnect catalogue.

In Germany the image of the Hanseatic city is mainly defined by Bremen and Hamburg. Both of them managed to maintain their independence as free cities until today and still proudly call themself officially "Hansestadt" (Hanseatic City). After the last Hanseatic Day in 1669 it were these two cities plus the Queen who were responsible for the Hanseatic legacy and managed and later sold the Kontore. Their inhabitants and with them all Hanseaten are usually described as cosmopolitan, urban, sober, reliable and stiff. After the German Reunification also other cities were allowed to officially call themself Hansestadt and more in East and West followed since then. Main reasons for this decision was not only a link to history and Europa but also a good touristic marketing. Beside Stralsund and Wismar the earliest were Greifswald and Rostock, which celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2018 and was thus chosen as location for a Hanseatic Day of New Time. In total there are now at least 27 official Hansestädte.

Special Postmark about the Hanseatic Day of New Time in
Rostock in 2018 with a stamp about Rostock's 800th anniversary

These were more or less the cities with the highest identity-establishing connection with the Hanseatic League, who decided to put their Hanseatic past on the UNESCO World Heritage List or still proudly present themself as Hansestadt, but keeping in mind that there were around 200 Hanseatic cities you can see that there are nearly 170 left without such a connection. These include formerly important members of the league like Braunschweig, Dortmund and Cologne, two more of the last nine (Hildesheim and Osnabrück) and so many more little and big cities. As my own home town Braunschweig is among these cities, I can say from my own experience that not much is left of a Hanseatic identity, although the fifth Hanseatic Day of New Time was hosted here in 1985 and will be again hosted in 2027 (I was not even born in 1985, but I look forward to the next one.). A reason for that might be that other aspects are more important for our historical awareness here, but also that actually nothing of Hanseatic architecture can be seen here and unlike in other cities like Stralsund or Wismar the Hanseatic League is so not so present in the cityscape. In fact the only Brick Gothic building is the Liberei, a small and well hidden library building from the 15th century, of which for example I have never seen a postcard. I would have really liked to tell you how the Hanseatic League is presented in our city museum, but unfortunately that branch is still closed due to Covid-19. I might add that later. I am sure other cities have similar experiences. If you are from a former Hanseatic city it would be great if you would post your experience in a comment.

But wait, one city is still missing: the afore-mentioned Queen, Lübeck. Here the Hanseatic identity is still alive. It quite natural officially holds the title Hansestadt and is since 1987 on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Its historic importance comes not only from its role as Queen of the Hanseatic League, but also because its town rights known as Lübeck Law and the Brick Gothic spread from here across Northern Europa. Of enormous architectural significance is especially the Saint Mary's Church, as it is considered to be the mother church of the Brick Gothic. The Town Hall on the other site was once the meeting place for the Hanseatic Days and inspired other town halls in the Baltic area. Since 2015 Lübeck is also home to the European Hanseatic Museum, the World's largest museum about the history of the Hanseatic League. During the opening of the museum Angela Merkel also hold the speech I quoted at the beginning. I already dealed with Lübeck's history in the old post linked at the top, so check that one out if you want to know more. Also if you ever are in Lübeck visit the European Hanseatic Museum. It is one of the best museums I ever visited and I can really recommend it.

Actually I planned to devote more time to the creation of this post, but now honestly I spent more or less just a day writing it. Sources were Wikipedia, the website of the UNESCO, the Panel Reports of the European Heritage Label from 2013 and 2019, the Postfrisch Ausgabe 3/2020, some older posts from this blog and my other and the speech of Angela Merkel from 2013, which you can find here (in German only). Also I began reading Rolf Hammel-Kiesow: Die Hanse, Munich2 2002 and used it for this post, but so far did not finished it, so I might change some things when/if I finish it.

Music and Culture in Salzburg (Austria)

The Prince-Archbishopric of Salzburg was an ecclesiastical principality and state of the Holy Roman Empire, which comprised the secular territory ruled by the archbishops of Salzburg. The Diocese of Salzburg was already founded on Bavarian territory in the 8th century, but it needed until the 13th century to gain political autonomy. Around 1600 Salzburg was one of the richest German States. Its autonomy Salzburg was able to maintain until the chaotic times at the beginning of the 19th century. In 1803 Salzburg was secularised and became an electorate under the former Grand Duke of Tuscany. In 1805 it became a part of Austria and in 1809 it became a part of Bavaria, before it ultimately lost its autonomy after the Congress of Vienna. Since then is Salzburg a part of Austria. Today it forms one of the nine states of Austria.

Especially the City of Salzburg, as capital of the Prince-Archbishopric, became an important cultural centre under the archbishops. It was the point where the Italian and German cultures met and which played a crucial role in the exchanges between these two cultures. In 1996 the Historic Centre of the City of Salzburg was one of the first two Austrian sites to be added to the UNESCO World Heritage List.

In 1756 Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart was born in Salzburg. One of the most famous Austrians was thus not a real Austrian but a Salzburgian. Together with his older sister Maria Anna "Nannerl" Mozart he got music lessons from their father very early and soon he was considered to be a musical child genius, who later went on to become one of the most influential composers of the Classical era. In his childhood he made many voyages in Europa, but used to live in Salzburg. A patron and employer of Mozart was Hieronymus von Colloredo, the Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg. Annoyed with Mozart's frequent absences he later dismissed him and in 1781 Mozart moved from Salzburg to Vienna, where he worked as freelance composer and where he also died impoverished in 1791.

When Salzburg had already lost its autonomy, another exceptional musical history began in the Salzburgian town of Oberndorf. On 24th December 1818 Franz Xaver Gruber and Joseph Mohr performed the Christmas carol Silent Night for the first time in the local Saint Nicholas' Church. Mohr had written its text already in 1816 and Gruber composed the melody shortly before Christmas 1818. Soon after its first performance it began to be spread around the World and until today it was translated into more than 300 languages.

In 2011 Silent Night became an Intangible Heritage of the Austrian UNESCO and it was also proposed for the European Heritage Label.
A special memorial for the carol is the Silent Night Chapel in Oberndorf. It was built at the site of the former Saint Nicholas' Church, which had to be demolished after it was damaged during the floodings of the Salzach in the late 19th century. The Silent Night Chapel was built between 1924 and 1936 and is today a popular tourist destination.
Of the original autographs of Gruber and Mohr only a few survived until today, but one of them is kept in Salzburg.

Proponents of the Lutheran Reformation (Croatia, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, USA)

Martin Luther was born on 10th November 1483 in Eisleben and on 11th November he was baptised in the Saints Peter's and Paul's Church. He grow up in nearby Mansfeld, where his father worked as foreman of a mine. Allegedly he had nine siblings. He went to school in Mansfeld, Magdeburg and Eisenach and started his studies at the Erfurt University in 1501. First he studied the seven liberal arts and after finishing in 1505 he started law studies at his father's request, but when he returned from Mansfeld to Erfurt on 2nd July 1505 there was a big thunderstorm and he pledged to become a monk if he is saved. As he was saved, he joined the Augustinian Monastery in Erfurt. In 1507 he was ordained to the priesthood and in 1508 and 1509 he applied himself to the study of theology in Wittenberg. A key moment of his life became his journey to Rome in 1511, where he represented his order in a dispute. There he made a clean breast and preached for the discharge of his dead relatives from the purgatory, but was also terrified of the moral decline in the holy city. Also in 1511 he moved permanently from Erfurt to Wittenberg and there he became Doctor Theologiae and Professor of the Lectura in Biblia. In addition to his teaching activity at the University of Wittenberg he also became Provincial Superior in 1514. This appointment was connected with many journeys to various churches and monasteries in the region. In Wittenberg he also developed his reformatory ideas and posted his Ninety-Five Theses in 1517.

After the publishing of the Ninety-five Theses in 1517 Martin Luther's life would never be the same again. The monk and professor was then talked of by everyone. In 1520 Martin Luther published his important works To the Christian Nobility of the German Nation, On the Babylonian Captivity of the Church and On the Freedom of a Christian. As the conflict with the Pope and the Emperor escalated, Luther was excommunicated in January 1521 and declared an outlaw after the Diet of Worms in April 1521. After spending around a year at the Wartburg, where he translated the New Testament into German, Luther returned to Wittenberg on 1st March 1522. In the following time Martin Luther celebrated the first Lutheran communion and the first germanophone mass. In 1524 he abandoned the lifestyle of a monk and in 1525 he married Katharina von Bora. After the Diet of Augsburg in 1530 the life of Martin Luther calmed down again. In the following years he mainly worked as publicist, chaplain and professor in Wittenberg, but still spoke his mind about important events of the time like the Ottoman Wars. Although he suffered from a heart disease, Martin Luther decided to go to Eisleben in January 1546 to settle a dispute with the Counts of Mansfeld. On 18th February 1546 Martin Luther died in Eisleben, where he was also born 62 years ago.

In 1996 six Luther Memorials in Eisleben and Wittenberg were added to the UNESCO World Heritage List. These include Luther's Birthplace, the house in which he died and the Luther Hall in Wittenberg. Currently more Luther Memorials are on the Tentative List, which would add up the total number to eighteen. These new submissions include the Augustinian Monastery in Erfurt and three churches in Eisleben that are connected to Luther.

Philip Schwartzerdt was born in Bretten on 16th February 1497 as oldest child of the superintendent of the princely armoury and the mayor's daughter. His grandfather organised an extensive education for the boy with teachings in Latin and frequent discussions with perambulating scholars. In 1508 his father and grandfather died in quick succession. After their death Philip and one of his brothers moved to Pforzheim. Their he went to a prestigious Latin School and also started to learn Greek. The famous humanist and scholar Johann Reuchlin became his patron and also gave Philip the humanistic name Melanchthon, a Grecization of his name Schwartzerdt. In October 1509 Philip Melanchthon moved to the University of Heidelberg. Due to his previous knowledge the studies were not a problem and in June 1511 he made his baccalaureus artium. Afterwards he went to the University of Tübingen where he studied the quadrivium (arithmetic, geometry, music and astronomy) and also devoted himself to Latin, Greek and Hebrew. In 1514 the magister degree was conferred to Melanchthon. In Tübingen he also worked for the first time as tutor and also released his first own publications. In 1518 he heard Martin Luther during the Heidelberg Disputation and decided to go to Wittenberg.

Also in 1518 Frederick the Wise donated a professorship for Greek language at the University of Wittenberg and after Johann Reuchlin refused, the honour was accorded to Philip Melanchthon. With his inaugural speech he impressed the audience which also included Martin Luther. Hereafter Melanchthon became a very popular professor and with the collaboration of Luther and Melanchthon the University of Wittenberg became one of the most important universities in Europe. He acquired the baccalaureus biblicus in 1519 and was afterwards allowed to deliver theological lectures. In 1520 Melanchthon was unwantedly married, but soon came to appreciate his new life. In 1530 he wrote the Confessio Augustana. Despite offers from other universities Melanchthon stayed in Wittenberg until his death and in 1536 Elector John Frederick I sponsored a house befitting the rank of the professor and his family. The house is now known as Melanchthonhaus and is also on the UNESCO World Heritage List. In 1560 Philip Melanchthon died in Wittenberg. Philip Melanchthon is said to have been the intellectual leader of the Lutheran Reformation and is known as Praeceptor Germaniae (Teacher of Germany), as he was an influential designer of educational systems.

Katharina von Bora was born in 1499 as child of a country aristocrat. In 1504 she began to be educated in a monastery and in 1515 she took her vows as a nun. In the monastery she learnt how to read, write and sing and also how to organise agricultural processes. Martin Luther's writings arrived early at Katharina's monastery and a small group of nuns decided to leave the monastic life. They wrote a letter to Luther and in 1523 he sent a chariot, which rescued Katharina together with eight other nuns. In Wittenberg Katharina found refuge in the house of Lucas Cranach.

While the other nuns where soon married off, the first placement of Katharina failed, so Martin Luther and Katharina decided to marry. On 13th June 1525 Katharina and Martin were married by Johannes Bugenhagen and shortly after they moved to their new home in Wittenberg, the Luther Hall. In the following years Katharina played an important part in Luther's life. She managed and farmed their estates, raised cattle, run a brewery and a hospice, provided the guests with meals and took part in intellectual discussions. Katharina and Martin Luther had six children together. Martin Luther's death in 1546 brought her in a bad situation, as Luther's will, which named her as sole heiress, was not accepted. A word of command of Elector John Frederick I of Saxony ensured her a big part of the heritage and also other Protestant rulers supported her financially. She fled the Schmalkaldic War to Magdeburg and in 1552 she had to leave Wittenberg again due to the plague and bad harvest. On her way to Torgau she had a coach accident and died three weeks later on 20th December 1552. Today Katharina von Bora is considered to have been one of the most important participants of the Reformation due to her role in helping to define Protestant family life and setting the tone for clergy marriages.

Johannes Bugenhagen was born in 1485 in the Duchy of Pomerania. Between 1502 and 1504 he studied at the University of Greifswald and in 1504 he became the rector of the local school in Treptow an der Rega. In 1509 he was ordained as a priest, although he had not studied theology, and in the following years he became the core of a Humanist circle. At the behest of the Duke of Pomerania Bugenhagen started to write a book about the history of Pomerania in 1517 and so he started an extensive journey around the country. In 1520 he first encountered the ideas of Luther. First he did not like them at all, but then he became a supporter and decided to move to Wittenberg. There he became parish pastor in 1523 and thus pastor and confessor of Martin Luther. In the following years he became also a close friend of Luther and Melanchthon and helped with the translation of the Bible. He also started to lecture at the University of Wittenberg and in 1533 he became one of the first three Protestant doctors of theology. In 1539 he became superintendent of the Lutheran Church in Saxony. Johannes Bugenhagen died in 1558.

Johannes Bugenhagen is especially known as the most important figure in the Protestant Reformation in Northern Germany and Scandinavia, where he took an active role in creating Protestant church orders. In 1528 he wrote the first Protestant church order in the World for Braunschweig. Church orders followed for Hamburg (1528/29),  Lübeck (1530–1532), the Duchy of Pomerania (1534/5), East Frisia (1534/5), Denmark-Norway (1537), where he also crowned Christian III, Schleswig-Holstein (1542), Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel (1543) and Hildesheim (1544). Not only did he create the new rules, he also established them and convinced people to follow them.

Lucas Cranach the Elder was born around 1472 in Kronach. His artistic development was promoted very early and he learnt the art of drawing from his father. Between 1502 and 1504 he lived in Vienna. In 1505 he was attached to the court of Elector Frederick the Wise, who gave him the winged snake as an emblem in 1508. In 1509 Cranach went to the Netherlands, where he painted Emperor Maximilian and the young Emperor Charles V.

During his first years in Wittenberg Cranach worked at the Castle, but in 1512 he moved his painter's workshop to the town. Also in 1512 he married Barbara Brengbier and together they had five children. Later he also owned an apothecary shop and a book shop and became a respected and influential person in the town. In 1519 he became a member of Wittenberg's town council for the first time. While living in Wittenberg he became friends with Martin Luther and Philipp Melanchthon. In the following years Lucas Cranach became the most important painter of the Reformation and one of the most famous painters of the German Renaissance. For example he provided woodcut illustrations for Luther's German translation of the Bible and painted various portraits of the reformers including the four paintings of Luther, Melanchthon, Katharina von Bora and Bugenhagen shown above. In 1524 he met Albrecht Dürer in Nuremberg. He remained the court painter of John the Steadfast after Frederick's death in 1525 and of John Frederick I after John's death in 1532. Between 1537 and 1544 he was also multiple times mayor of Wittenberg. After John Frederick I's defeat in the Battle of Mühlberg in 1547 and his following imprisonment, Lucas Cranach followed him to Augsburg and later Innsbruck. In 1552 Lucas Cranach also followed John Frederick I to his new residence in Weimar, where he lived together with one of his daughters and where he also died in 1553.

Lucas Cranach the Younger was born in Wittenberg in 1515 as second child of Lucas Cranach the Elder and Barbara Brengbier. Together with his older brother Hans he learnt the art of drawing at their father's painter's workshop. In 1537 he assumed the workshop of his father and in 1544 he also got his houses in Wittenberg. Like his father he became a member of the town council and also worked as mayor. Lucas Cranach the Younger died in 1586. The style of his paintings can be so similar to those of his father that there have been some difficulties in attribution of their works.

Begun by the father and finished by the son,
the Reformation's Altar at the Town and Parish Church of St Mary's in Wittenberg
is said to be one of the most important pieces of art of the Reformation.
It arose in close cooperation between the artists and
the reformers and was erected in 1547/48.

Elector Frederick III of Saxony was born in 1463 as oldest son of Elector Ernest of Saxony. In 1486 he became Elector of Saxony and soon he was able to become financially independent. In 1502 he founded the University of Wittenberg. The political aim of the Elector was the strengthening of the territorial princes and the weakening of Emperor and Pope. Thus he became one of the most important supporters of Martin Luther's reformatory ideas, which confronted the excesses of the papacy. His persistence and repulsion against military conflicts later earned him the name Frederick the Wise. In 1519 he rejected the imperial dignity and supported the election of Charles V. Although Frederick the Wise is especially known for his support of Martin Luther, he was deeply held in Catholicism and established the third largest relic collection of its time at the Castle Church in Wittenberg. He also had little personal contact with Luther, but short before his death in 1525 he accepted the communion in Lutheran form.

After Frederick III's death his brother, Johann the Steadfast, became the new Elector of Saxony. Just like his brother he supported Martin Luther, but unlike him he supported also Luther's religious ideas and became a close friend of the reformer. In 1527 he became the bishop of the newly founded Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Saxony, in 1529 he was a part of the Protestation at Speyer and in 1531 he became one of the leaders of the Schmalkaldic League. Johann the Steadfest died in 1532.

This is not a postcard, but a picture from the Internet.

Elector John Frederick I of Saxony, also known as Johann the Magnanimous, became the successor of his father. Like him he was one of the leaders of the Schmalkaldic League, but after his defeat in the Schmalkaldic War in 1547 he was imprisoned and lost the electoral dignity. In 1552 he was released from captivity and became Duke of Saxony. John Frederick I died in 1554.

This is not a postcard, but a picture from the Internet.

Philip I was born in 1504 and in 1518 he became Landgrave of Hesse. Until 1523 he expelled Lutheran preachers from his territory, but already in 1524 he started to support Luther's ideas and became a spearhead of the Reformation. Under his rule Hesse became one of the earliest and most powerful Protestant principalities. After the Peasants' War he sought talks with the peasants and suppressed the most of the pilloried injustices. After the Synod of Homberg he officially introduced the Reformation to the Landgraviate. In consequence the monasteries were dissolved and their capital benefited the care of the poor and invalid. In 1527 he founded the University of Marburg, the first Lutheran university in the World. In 1529 he was a part of the Protestation at Speyer and in 1531 he became a leader of the Schmalkaldic League. A second marriage in 1540 led to many difficulties with his allies. After the Schmalkaldic War he was imprisoned and when he returned to Hesse he mainly looked after the administration of his principality. Philip I died in 1567. After his death the Landgraviate of Hesse was divided between his four sons from his first marriage and never regained its former importance.

Justus Jonas was a German Lutheran theologian and reformer. In 1521 he became Professor of Church Law in the University of Wittenberg. He is especially known for his translations of Luther's and Melanchthon's works either from Latin to German or from German to Latin, but also acted as the lawyer of the reformers. Justus Jonas accompanied Martin Luther in his final moments. In 1541 Justus Jonas introduced the Reformation to Halle, when he preached at the Market Church, which was actually built as prestigious church for Cardinal Albrecht of Brandenburg and as bulwark against the sprawling Lutheran ideas between 1529 and 1554.

Nikolaus von Amsdorf was born in Torgau in 1483. He was a German theologian and one of Martin Luther's most determined supporters. In 1542 he was installed as Bishop of Naumburg-Zeitz and thus became the first Lutheran bishop in Germany, but already in 1546 he had to leave his position. He died in Eisenach in 1565.

Martin Bucer was born in 1491. At the age of 15 he joined the Dominican Order and in 1517 he started his studies at the University in Heidelberg, where he met Martin Luther in 1518. He joined the Reformation and left the Dominican Order in 1521. He was later forced to flee to Strasbourg and helped to introduce the Reformation to the Alsace. In the following years he tried to mediate between the different parties of the Reformation. He took part in the Marburg Colloquy and was one of the authors of the Confessio Tetrapolitana in 1530. In 1536 he was one of the signers of the Wittenberg Concord. With the Ziegenhain Order of Discipline in 1539 he created the basis for the Confirmation in the Lutheran Church. In 1549 he was exiled to England and became Regius Professor of Divinity in Cambridge. Martin Bucer died in 1551.

Lazarus Spengler became a member of Nuremberg's city council in 1516. He was an early supporter of Martin Luther and became the leader of the Reformation in Nuremberg. In 1526 Spengler and Philip Melanchthon opened a Lutheran gymnasium in Nuremberg. In 1530 he attended the Diet of Augsburg. He also helped to design the Luther rose and wrote some popular hymns. Lazarus Spengler died in 1534.

Georg Spalatin was born in Franconia in 1484 and got his early education in Nuremberg. He later studied in Erfurt and became a member of a little band of German humanists. In 1509 he started to work for Frederick the Wise. First he was the tutor for his nephews, his librarian and secretary, but later he became his confidential adviser in all the troubled diplomacy of the earlier years of the Reformation and there is scarcely any fact in the opening history of the Reformation which is not connected in some way with Spalatin's name. He also remained an adviser for Frederick's successors. Georg Spalatin died in 1545.

Johannes Brenz was born in 1499. In 1518 he saw Martin Luther during the Heidelberg Disputation and became a life-long follower. In 1522 he became preacher at the Saint Michael's Church in Schwäbisch Hall and from here he introduced the Reformation to Württemberg. He became one of the most influential reformers and was nicknamed Luther's Man in South Germany. Johannes Brenz died in 1570.

Martin Luther regarded music and hymns in German as important means for the development of faith and himself wrote more than 30 songs. The music became a signature feature of the movement and catchy songs were a powerful weapon for the spread of the Lutheran ideas. Beside Luther also other musicians contributed to the Music of the Reformation. The two most famous of them are probably Johann Sebastian Bach and Heinrich Schütz.

Heinrich Schütz was born on 18th October 1585. His musical talent was discovered in 1599 by Landgrave Maurice of Hesse-Kassel and with his support Schütz was able to be trained as a musician. Later he became capellmeister in Dresden and also worked in Copenhagen, Hanover, Wolfenbüttel, Gera, Weimar and Zeitz. In 1617 he helped to arrange musically the events for the 100th anniversary of the Reformation in Dresden. His last years he spent in Weißenfels, where he had already spent his childhood. Heinrich Schütz died on 16th November 1672. He had a big influence on the Music of the Reformation and is considered to have been the most important German composer of the Early Baroque period.

Ebernburg Castle was first mentioned in 1338 and was destroyed and rebuilt multiple times in its history. At the beginning of the 16th century Franz von Sickingen (1481 - 1523) was the lord of the castle. He was an early supporter of the Reformation and offered refuge to Martin Luther after the Diet of Worms. Luther refused, but other reformers (e.g. Martin Bucer and Johannes Oekolampad) took the offer and established a thriving theologian's community at the castle. German-language church services and communions were conducted there. The humanist Ulrich von Hutten therefore coined the term Shelter of Justice for Ebernburg Castle.

Hans Lufft was a printer and publisher. In 1515 he started to work in a printers' shop in Wittenberg and in 1524 he owned his own shop. In the following years he printed many works of Martin Luther and other reformers including Luther's first complete Bible in 1534. From then on he was known as the Bible Printer. In 1542 he became a member of Wittenberg's town council. Hans Lufft died in 1584.

Matthias Flacius was born in 1520 in Istria. At the age of sixteen Flacius went to study in Venice, where he came in contact with the Humanism. He actually wanted to join a monastic order afterwards, but his uncle convinced him to start a university career. So he continued his studies in Basel, Tübingen and Wittenberg. In Wittenberg he also met Martin Luther and Philip Melanchthon and in 1544 he became professor of Hebrew at the University of Wittenberg. Soon Flacius was prominent in the theological discussions of the time, although his religious views caused controversies. Also due to his religious views he was not welcome at many places and had to wander around after he had left Wittenberg in 1549. In the following years he spent time in Magdeburg, Jena, Regensburg, Antwerp, Frankfurt and Strasbourg, before he died in Frankfurt in 1575.

Andreas Knöpken was born near Sonnenburg in modern day Poland and was later ordained as a priest. Some day he met Johannes Bugenhagen and probably in late 1520 he joined the Reformation. Later he brought the Reformation to Riga. In 1529 he wrote a church order, which in 1533 would also be used in Tallinn and Tartu. He also wrote a few songs and devoted himself to the creation of school systems. When he died in 1539, the Reformation was firmly established in Riga.

Martynas Mažvydas was born around 1510 and spent his childhood in Vilnius. When the ideas of the Reformation reached Lithuania, he started to support them, but as he met refusal and persecution in his homeland, he followed an invitation of Duke Albert of Prussia to come to Königsberg. In 1546 he began his studies at the University of Königsberg and in 1547 he published there his first book, Catechismusa Prasty Szadei, a Lithuanian version of Luther's Catechism and the first book in the Lithuanian language. Due to this he is considered to be the father of the Lithuanian written language. He was appointed a priest in Ragainė in 1549 and during the rest of his life he published more books in Lithuanian. Martynas Mažvydas died in 1563.