The Hanseatic League - Narratives and Local Perspectives

When I started this blog in July 2015, the second post I wrote was about the Hanseatic League. Since then however I had plans to rewrite or expand this post and although there were two interested Hanseatic jubilees in the last two years, 800 years Rostock in 2018 and 350 years last Hanseatic Day in 2019, it took me until this year's jubilee (see below) to do so. But first let's take a look at what I wrote nearly five years ago:

"The Hanseatic League existed between the 12th and the 17th century. First it was only a union of merchants, but since the 14th century it was organised by the cities itself. Since then also Hanseatic Days were held frequently. The Hanseatic League was not only an important factor in the development of the Northern European economy but also of its politics and culture. At its climax nearly 200 coastal and inland cities joined the league. In the 15th century the demise of the Hanseatic League began with the strengthening of the local sovereigns, the shift of trade route and the new competitors developing due to the discovery of America. In 1669 only the nine cities Braunschweig, Bremen, Cologne, Gdansk, Hamburg, Hildesheim, Lübeck, Osnabrück and Rostock came together for the last Hanseatic Day."

Although some things might me improved here, I actually still like what I wrote back then and do not intend to change anything, but instead I want now to focus a bit on historic narratives about the Hanseatic League and some perspectives from different cities. 

In Germany the Hanseatic League is usually rated as a positive aspect of history, but during the last 150 the reason for this has changed. From the 19th century up until the Nazis the Hanseatic League was regarded as a German entity or even precursor of the national state maintaining a powerful position in Northern Europa, which was for example added by fleet glory during the rule of Emperor William II or as carrier of the expansion of the German lebensraum in the East by the Nazis. After World War II that changed. In East Germany for example the Hanseatic League was now an example for the influence of the masses on the history, although even East German historians denied this view. In Scandinavia the view of the Hanseatic League was more negative, as it was regarded as an exploiter of the local people. This negativity however faded away and gave rise to a new narrative, which was also shared with West Germany. As such the Hanseatic League was now viewed as a precursor of a unified Europa. This change of view is nicely documented by a German-Swedish joint issue back in 2006 celebrating the 650th anniversary of the Hanseatic League of Cities and also German Chancellor Angela Merkel followed this narrative during a speech in 2015, during which she highlighted its role as "first big successful trade network in Europa" ("der erste große erfolgreiche Wirtschaftsverbund Europas"), long lifespan, transnational thinking and joint interests and also draws a continuity to the European Union and the central thought of strength through unity. As I actually like this narrative, I do not want to discuss it too much, but just two other thoughts show that this view is as fragile as any other. At first it has to be said, that there might be Hanseatic cities in Estonia, Iceland, Poland and so on, but they were only part of the Hanseatic League, because German merchants lived there, which makes them not really transnational. Also I want to quote one of my docents who once said in a seminary about the history of the Baltic states in the Middle Ages that the Hanseatic League was a "semi-criminal forwarding cartel bullying out other competitors." All of these narratives for sure have their true core and although it is not ideal I think everyone knows that in the end the loudest narrative will be prevalent.

So, if it is not easy to really examine what the Hanseatic League was in history as a whole it should be easier to take a look in its role in the history of its constitutent parts, the cities, right? This however brings up an interesting problem: There is no complete list of Hanseatic Cities and it probably never existed. Some cities were part of the league for centuries, while others were just short time members. For some the membership was an important part of the local identity and economic importance, while others had many different pillars. And also the membership in the Hanseatic League of New Time, founded in Zwolle in 1980, is not a good indicator, as it includes on request all cities that were once part of the original league. In theory this however means that some Hanseatic cities which never made a request are not part of it, while other cities which were short time members are now full members of the new league. Without claim to completeness below you can find nine cities and groups of cities which I chose to examine different aspects of Hanseatic history and identity.

The first four cities are Bergen in Norway, Bruges in Belgium, London in the United Kingdom and Veliky Novgorod in Russia. None of these cities was ever an actual Hanseatic city, but they played an important part in the Hanseatic history, as the were home to the major foreign trading posts of the league, the Kontore. Of these Kontore not much survived until today, as most of them were closed at some point in history and were later demolished. Only the Kontor in Bergen, known as Bryggen, survived and as a "reminder of the town's importance as part of the Hanseatic League's trading empire" it is even on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

The next city is Visby on the Swedish island of Gotland. Visby or actually Gotland as a whole was an important early step in the formation of the Hanseatic League, as this was one of the earliest stages and centres for the trade in the Baltic Sea. In the early days in the second half of the 13th century Visby was also on a good way to become the leader of the nascent league, but was neutralised by the later Queen. Just like the Bryggen also Visby is on the UNESCO World Heritage List. It is there described as "the best-preserved fortified commercial city in northern Europe" and the "main centre of the Hanseatic League in the Baltic from the 12th to the 14th century."

Stralsund and Wismar in the German State of Mecklenburg-Vorpommern are usually presented as a pair, as as such they are together on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Both were major trading centres of the Hanseatic League and also share the common fate of later becoming part of Sweden. As the UNESCO highlights, they also "contributed to the development of the characteristic building types and techniques of Brick Gothic in the Baltic region." After having visited Stralsund myself last year plus making a short stop in Wismar, I can say that the Brick Gothic architecture there is truely amazing. Highlights are the Town Hall of Stralsund and Stralsund's Saint Mary's Church, which was once even the tallest building in the World. Check out this post on my other blog to see the cards I bought during this trip including many cards of Brick Gothic buildings. Stralsund is also inseparably linked to the Treaty of Stralsund, which was signed on this day 650 years ago in 1370 and which marked the peak of power of the Hanseatic League. This treaty ended the war between the Hanseatic League and the Kingdom of Denmark and assured the league of free trade in the entire Baltic Sea resulting in a monopoly on Baltic fish trade. Also now the league had a right to veto against Danish throne candidates. Unfortunately there was not (yet?) any philatelic commemoration of this jubilee. No stamp, prepaid cover or card and not even a special postmark were available. Only the magazin "Postfrisch" of the Deutsche Post published an article about the treaty in its most recent issue called "Triumph der Kaufleute" (Triumph of the Merchants). The article begins with the question, "who thought that merchants might defeat a kingdom?" and ends with a statement on its historic importance, which however was not much mentioned in contemporary sources of the 14th century.

Tallinn, Estonia's capital, is yet another Hanseatic-themed UNESCO World Heritage Site. Also Tallinn is described by the UNESCO as a major centre of the Hanseatic League, whose "wealth is demonstrated by the opulence of the public buildings (the churches in particular) and the domestic architecture of the merchants' houses." In fact it was one of the centres for the Hanseatic trade with Russia. An interesting building in Tallinn is the Great Guild Hall, which got the European Heritage Label in 2013. The Panel Report says that the "Great Guild's history of interactions with the Hanseatic League reveals the intriguing story of European 'integration' in medieval times."

I am still looking for a card of the Great Guild Hall. If you can help me please comment below.

Latvia's capital Riga was also one of the key centres of the Hanseatic League in Eastern Europa and just like Tallinn it is also on the UNESCO World Heritage List, important for the inscription was however not only the Hanseatic past but also the fine collection of art nouveau buildings. Generally the UNESCO describes Riga as "living illustration of European history." The Three Brothers, characteristic dwelling houses found in Hanseatic towns in the Baltic Region, also got the European Heritage Label in 2019. The restoration in the 1950s is described in the Panel Report as "instrumental in building resistance to the destruction of Latvian culture during the Soviet occupation, and for sustaining the link with Europe and the value of freedom during this period." Riga's Hanseatic past is thus described as its link with Europa. In 2007 Latvia and Germany celebrated their common Hanseatic past with a joint issue about Riga, Stralsund and Wismar. The House of the Blackheads is depicted for Riga on these stamps. The ones for Stralsund and Wismar you can see above.

I am still looking for a card of the Three Brothers. If you can help me please comment below.

Another former Hanseatic city, which would like to be included on the UNESCO World Heritage List, is Gdansk in Poland. To reach this goal "Gdansk - Town of Memory and Freedom" is currently inscribed to the UNESCO World Heritage List. While the application also includes Hanseatic memory next to the Westerplatte and sites of the Solidarity Movement, the text on the website mentions the Hanseatic League itself only shortly. Although the Hanseatic identity is still expressed today, it seems to have been even stronger one hundred years ago. Back then during the Interwar Period Gdansk as Free City of Danzig was a semi-autonomous city-state separated from Germany and put into a binding customs union with Poland. To commemorate the proclamation of the state (15th November 1920) a series of stamps was issued on 31st January 1921, which showed the famous Hanseatic Kogge (wrongly depicted with three masts) and thus activated the city's Hanseatic past and with that back then also its German identity.

Unfortunately I do not own this stamp.
The image is from the Colnect catalogue.

In Germany the image of the Hanseatic city is mainly defined by Bremen and Hamburg. Both of them managed to maintain their independence as free cities until today and still proudly call themself officially "Hansestadt" (Hanseatic City). After the last Hanseatic Day in 1669 it were these two cities plus the Queen who were responsible for the Hanseatic legacy and managed and later sold the Kontore. Their inhabitants and with them all Hanseaten are usually described as cosmopolitan, urban, sober, reliable and stiff. After the German Reunification also other cities were allowed to officially call themself Hansestadt and more in East and West followed since then. Main reasons for this decision was not only a link to history and Europa but also a good touristic marketing. Beside Stralsund and Wismar the earliest were Greifswald and Rostock, which celebrated its 800th anniversary in 2018 and was thus chosen as location for a Hanseatic Day of New Time. In total there are now at least 27 official Hansestädte.

Special Postmark about the Hanseatic Day of New Time in
Rostock in 2018 with a stamp about Rostock's 800th anniversary

These were more or less the cities with the highest identity-establishing connection with the Hanseatic League, who decided to put their Hanseatic past on the UNESCO World Heritage List or still proudly present themself as Hansestadt, but keeping in mind that there were around 200 Hanseatic cities you can see that there are nearly 170 left without such a connection. These include formerly important members of the league like Braunschweig, Dortmund and Cologne, two more of the last nine (Hildesheim and Osnabrück) and so many more little and big cities. As my own home town Braunschweig is among these cities, I can say from my own experience that not much is left of a Hanseatic identity, although the fifth Hanseatic Day of New Time was hosted here in 1985 and will be again hosted in 2027 (I was not even born in 1985, but I look forward to the next one.). A reason for that might be that other aspects are more important for our historical awareness here, but also that actually nothing of Hanseatic architecture can be seen here and unlike in other cities like Stralsund or Wismar the Hanseatic League is so not so present in the cityscape. In fact the only Brick Gothic building is the Liberei, a small and well hidden library building from the 15th century, of which for example I have never seen a postcard. I would have really liked to tell you how the Hanseatic League is presented in our city museum, but unfortunately that branch is still closed due to Covid-19. I might add that later. I am sure other cities have similar experiences. If you are from a former Hanseatic city it would be great if you would post your experience in a comment.

But wait, one city is still missing: the afore-mentioned Queen, Lübeck. Here the Hanseatic identity is still alive. It quite natural officially holds the title Hansestadt and is since 1987 on the UNESCO World Heritage List. Its historic importance comes not only from its role as Queen of the Hanseatic League, but also because its town rights known as Lübeck Law and the Brick Gothic spread from here across Northern Europa. Of enormous architectural significance is especially the Saint Mary's Church, as it is considered to be the mother church of the Brick Gothic. The Town Hall on the other site was once the meeting place for the Hanseatic Days and inspired other town halls in the Baltic area. Since 2015 Lübeck is also home to the European Hanseatic Museum, the World's largest museum about the history of the Hanseatic League. During the opening of the museum Angela Merkel also hold the speech I quoted at the beginning. I already dealed with Lübeck's history in the old post linked at the top, so check that one out if you want to know more. Also if you ever are in Lübeck visit the European Hanseatic Museum. It is one of the best museums I ever visited and I can really recommend it.

Actually I planned to devote more time to the creation of this post, but now honestly I spent more or less just a day writing it. Sources were Wikipedia, the website of the UNESCO, the Panel Reports of the European Heritage Label from 2013 and 2019, the Postfrisch Ausgabe 3/2020, some older posts from this blog and my other and the speech of Angela Merkel from 2013, which you can find here (in German only). Also I began reading Rolf Hammel-Kiesow: Die Hanse, Munich2 2002 and used it for this post, but so far did not finished it, so I might change some things when/if I finish it.

Karl Marx' Life and Legacy (China, Germany, Russia, Vietnam)

Karl Marx was born in Trier on the 5th May 1818 as the third of nine children of his parents. His parents were Jews, but converted to the Protestantism, as the father would otherwise have occupational problems. Between 1830 and 1835 he attended a Gymnasium in Trier, before he began his studies in Bonn and Berlin. Although actually studying law, he also often attended historical and philosophical lectures. During his studies he came in contact with the Young Hegelians, who were especially known for their critique of the Prussian political system and who expected more political change as part of a historical process. In 1841 a philosophical doctorate was conferred on Marx by the University of Jena. Actually he hoped to start an academic career, but due to his work with the Young Hegelians the Prussian state prevented this. Instead he began to work as editor for the oppositional Rheinische Zeitung, but had to stop this work as well due to the Prussian censorship.

In 1843 he married Jenny von Westphalen and together they moved to Paris, where Marx again worked as editor for a newspaper. In Paris he also began to proceed to the Communism and his life-long friendship with Friedrich Engels began. Due to Prussian pressure Marx had to leave Paris in 1845 and settled in Brussels. In 1846 Marx and Engels founded the Communist Correspondence Committee, which planned the cooperation of various Communist groups in Europa and which was merged with another organisation to form the Communist League in 1847. In the revolutionary year 1848 Marx and Engels published the famous Communist Manifesto for the league, which summarises Marx and Engels' theories concerning the nature of society and politics. During the revolutions Marx moved from Brussels to Paris, onwards to Cologne, back to Paris and finally to his exile in London, where he worked as journalist and where he stayed until the end of his life. In London he created A Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy (1859) and Das Kapital (1867-1883) and contributed to the foundation of the First International in 1864. In his last he was often sick, but still was in contact to many leading Communists and Labour Leader in America and Europa also after the First International was dissolved in 1876. On 2nd December 1881 Jenny Marx died and on 14th March 1883 her husband followed her in the grave.

Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were the most important figures of the Communism and thus they had a tremendous influence on the history of the 20th century especially in China and the Eastern Bloc. He has often been described as one of the most influential figures in human history, although his work has been both lauded and criticised.

Around the World there were and still are many Marx memorial sites. In Eastern Germany for example the city of Chemnitz was known as Karl-Marx-Stadt and there were many memorials for Marx including the famous ones in Berlin and Chemnitz. To commemorate Marx' 200th birthday in 2018 the People's Republic of China sponsored a new Marx memorial for Trier, which was even shown on a Chinese stamp.

Other Marx stamps in 2018 were also issued in Germany, Kyrgyzstan, Russia and Vietnam. Interestingly the German stamp of 2018 is already the second stamp of the Federal Republic after one issued during the heyday of the Cold War in 1968.

1917: Первая мировая война and World War I (Belarus, Bulgaria, Canada, Faroe Islands, France, Greece, Ireland, Israel, Latvia, Monaco, New Zealand, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Slovenia, Thailand, United Kingdom)

Originally posted on 11th October 2018

12th January - Big Protests in Hamburg due to the bad situation of the civilian population in the German Steckrübenwinter (Turnip Winter)

16th January - The secret Zimmermann Telegram is issued from the German Foreign Office that proposed a military alliance between Germany and Mexico in the case that the USA declared war on the Central Powers and that promised Mexico the recovery of various lost former territories. The British intercepted the telegram and later decoded it.

1st February - Resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare by the German Empire

The Resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare impressively shows how the war also affected a neutral territory, the Faroe Islands. Already short after the declaration of war there were shortages in supply on the Faroe Islands, as the belligerents put up naval blockades. In these times of dearth the Faroese started to experiment around to get the most necessary goods. For example they used roe to extend rye flour or blubber as lamp oil and fuel for motorboats. On 1st February 1917 the German Empire declared the waters around the British Islands as war zone, which also stretched to the southern part of the Faroe Islands, and announced to dump all boats in the zone by submarines, but full of hope the Faroese still sent out their fishing boats. The tragedy occurred on the 23rd and 24th May 1917, when a German submarine dumped altogether eight Faroese boats. 

21st February - Beginning of the Toplica Uprising

The Toplica Uprising was a Serb rebellion in 1917 carried out by Serbian guerrillas in the Toplica District in the eastern part of the Kingdom of Serbia against the Bulgarian occupation force. Serbia was occupied since October 1915, but when Romania entered the war in August 1916, new hope awakened among the Serbian population. Some armed themselves and took to the forests. Even a secret resistance organisation was founded. On 21st February the rebellion broke out and the Serbs started to liberate some cities. On 15th March the Bulgarians started a counter-attack with Austro-Hungarian support and although some rebels survived and escaped, the order was fully restored by the 25th March. During the rebellion several thousand people were killed including civilians. It was the only rebellion in the territories occupied by the armies of the Central Powers during World War I.

8th March - Beginning of the February Revolution

In the early 20th century Russia was coined by the conservative and authoritarian government of Tsar Nicholas II and a growing proletariat in the cities, but at the beginning of World War I the country was still caught by a wave of nationalism. Heavy military setbacks and the horrible situation of the civilian population at home however changed the people's mind. Soon this would also led to a loss of confidence in the regime, as the Tsar was made responsible for all the problems. Beginning in February 1917 there were big strikes and demonstrations in Saint Petersburg. On 8th March (or 23rd February according to the Julian calendar used then in Russia), International Women's Day, small demonstrations turned into economic and political gatherings. A few days later factories and other enterprises had to be closed down, as too many workers were demonstrating. The Tsar hoped that the available soldiers would quell the riots, but when he actually ordered the army to suppress them, many soldiers began to mutiny. After he figured out his desperate situation, he abdicated on 15th March. One day later a Provisional Government was established. Already four days earlier the socialists had formed the Petrograd Soviet. In the following time these two bodies competed for power over Russia. Thus they created a factual dual power.

11th March - Bagdad is captured by the British.

19th March - As part of the Operation Alberich, which began on the 9th February, the German Empire had withdrawn to new positions on the shorter and more easily defended Hindenburg Line on the Western Front.

6th April - The USA enter World War I alongside the Entente.

Although they had already supplied the Entente countries earlier, the USA officially remained neutral during World War I until their declaration of war on Germany on 6th April 1917. Reasons for the entry included the resumption of the unrestricted submarine warfare and Zimmermann Telegram. The USA were an independent power and did not officially join the Entente, but they closely cooperated militarily. American soldiers arrived in large numbers on the Western Front in the summer of 1918. 110,000 of them died and never came back home.

9th April - Beginning of the Battle of Arras

9th April - Beginning of the Battle of Vimy Ridge

The Battle of Vimy Ridge was fought in 1917 between the German Empire and the British Empire and is a part of the Battle of Arras. It was the first battle in which the four divisions of Canadian Expeditionary Force fought together and became a symbol of Canadian national achievement. It ended with a victory of the British Empire. 

11th April - The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (USPD), which later played an important role in the Weimar Republic, is founded.

16th April - Beginning of the Battle of Chemin des Dames

The Battle of Chemin des Dames, also known as Second Battle of the Aisne, was fought between the German Empire and France in April and May 1917. The battle began as part of a meticulously planned Franco-British offensive, but had to be abandoned after many French divisions mutinied. It ended with a tactical victory of the German Empire. Prince Louis II of Monaco, who volunteered to serve in the French Army in August 1914, took part in the battle.

22nd April - Beginning of the Second Battle of Doiran

After Bulgaria's entry into the war the Balkan theatre saw successful campaigns of rapid movement in 1915 and 1916, but soon the conflict degraded into a state of trench warfare. The Second Battle of Doiran was fought between Bulgaria and the United Kingdom in April and May 1917. It ended with a Bulgarian victory and thus thwarted an Allied breakthrough at the Balkan front.

12th May - Beginning of the Tenth Battle of the Isonzo

4th June - The Polish military contingent known as Blue Army is created in France to fight alongside the Entente. After fighting on the Western Front it was later moved to Poland to fight for the return of Poland's independence.

7th June - Beginning of the Battle of Messines Ridge

The Battle of Messines Ridge was fought near the village of Messines in West Flanders in June 1917. The battle resulted in a British victory and the recapturing of the Messines Ridge. During the battle Irish soldiers, supporting and opposing the ideas of the Easter Rising, fought together.

29th June - Greece enters the war alongside the Entente.

1st July - Although big parts of the population and the soldiers were against a further participation in the war, Alexander Kerensky, Minister of War in the Provisional Government, decided to start a new offensive against the Central Powers, the Kerensky Offensive. After an initial success the offensive ended on 19th July with a military catastrophe, which further weakened the Provisional Government.

14th July - The German Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg resigns.

20th July - The Corfu Declaration is signed.

After Serbia was occupied by the Central Powers, Corfu became the new seat of the Serbian government in exile. On 20th July 1917 Croatian, Serbian and Slovenian politicians in exile with the support of France and the United Kingdom signed there the Corfu Declaration, which enabled the creation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes after the war.

22nd July - Thailand enters World War I alongside the Entente.

Thailand, back then known as Siam, is possibly one of the least well-known participants in World War I, although an Expeditionary Force was sent to France to fight on the Western Front, which began operations in the middle of September 1918. Siam was the only state in Southeast Asia to enter the conflict entirely of its own free will and as an equal of the European powers. During the war 19 soldiers of Siam died. After it Siam became a founding member of the League of Nations.

22nd July - Beginning of the Battle of Mărăști

When Romania entered World War I alongside the Entente in 1916, there were soon some victories of the Romanian forces aided by Russia against the Central Powers, but when the Central Powers started to fight back, big parts of Romania were occupied by the end of 1916. The three battles of Mărăști, Mărășești and Oituz, which were fought between July and August 1917 and which all ended with Romanian successes, left the remaining Romanian territories unoccupied and seemed like a relief, but the situation once again took a turn for the worse for Romania in November 1917, when Russia's involvement in the war ended with the October Revolution.

31st July - Beginning of the Battle of Passchendaele

The Battle of Passchendaele, which is also known as Third Battle of Ypres or Dritte Flandernschlacht in German, was fought by Belgium, the British Empire and France against the German Empire between the 31st July and the 10th November 1917. The battle ended, when Canadian troops captured the village of Passchendaele. The quite big gains of territory for the Allies were bought with horrible losses and thus the battle became another symbol of the absurdity and brutality of the war. The Tyne Cot Cemetery, the largest cemetery for Commonwealth forces in the World, is located on the former battleground.

14th August - China enters the war alongside the Entente.

17th August - Beginning of the Eleventh Battle of the Isonzo

3rd September - Riga is captured by the Germans.

At the beginning of World War I the Latvian territory was a part of the Russian Empire and had a direct border with the German Empire. Already in August 1914 Liepaja and the Užava Lighthouse were attacked by German troops, but just in May 1915 the war reached the whole of Latvia leading to many Latvians leaving their region. Also much of the region's industry was evacuated to Russia and was lost forever. In September 1917 Riga was captured by German troops. After the Russian Revolution parts of Latvia were given to the Germans according to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, who quickly established an occupational regime which ruled between March and November 1918. After the end of World War I the Latvian War of Independence was fought, which ended with the recognition of the Latvian Republic by Soviet Russia in 1920.

24th October - Beginning of the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo

The region around Kobarid was located near the Isonzo Front and was hard fought between the Austro-Hungarian Empire and Italy. After a long trench warfare the Battle of Kobarid, fought in October and November 1917, resulted in a victory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and the collapse of the Italian Second Army. The battle is also known as the Twelfth Battle of the Isonzo, Battle of Caporetto (Italian name of Kobarid) or Battle of Karfreit (German name of Kobarid).

26th October - Brazil enters World War I alongside the Entente.

31st October - Beginning of the Battle of Beersheba in Ottoman Syria, which ended with a British victory and thus paved the way for the Battle of Jerusalem

2nd November - The Balfour Declaration is issued by the British government.

The Balfour Declaration was a public statement issued by the British government on 2nd November 1917. With it the British government announced their support for the Zionist aim of establishing a "national home for the Jewish people" in Palestine, which was then still under Ottoman rule. Thus the British hoped to mobilise new resources.

7th November - Beginning of the October Revolution

In the unstable time of the dual power Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolshevik Party, returned with German help from his exile in Switzerland to Russia. His return was enabled by the democratisation of politics after the February Revolution and the legalisation of formerly banned political parties. One of his main political aims as formulated in his April Theses was the accession to power by the soviets. At the beginning Lenin's Bolsheviks formed a minority in the both big cities of Moscow and Saint Petersburg, but in the following months various events led to a strengthening of their power. The October Revolution finally began on 7th November (or 25th October according to Julian calendar), which saw the overthrow of the Provisional Government and the accession to power by the Soviets. This event would later mark the beginning of the spread of communism in the 20th century and would create the Soviet Union as new global power, but for the moment it laid the foundation for the Russian Civil War.

17th November - Beginning of the Battle of Jerusalem

The Battle of Jerusalem was a part of the British Sinai and Palestine Campaign against the Ottoman Empire. The battle started on 17th November 1917 and already on the 9th December Jerusalem surrendered to the British, although fightings continued until the 30th December. When General Edmund Allenby entered the Old City on 11th December, he was the first Christian in many centuries to control the holy city. The capture of Jerusalem was a great morale boost for the British Empire and led to a loss of prestige for the Ottoman Empire in the Arabic World. After the battle the British established a new strategically strong fortified line.

20th November - Beginning of the Battle of Cambrai

4th December - Russia and the German Empire sign a ceasefire agreement. One day later a ceasefire agreement with all Central Powers followed.

9th December - Romania and the Central Powers sign the Armistice of Focșani.

15th December - Russia and the Central Powers sign an armistice.

22nd December - Beginning of peace negotiations between Russia and the Central Powers in Brest-Litovsk